第一部分英语知识运用部分命题的特点和规律 一、英语知识运用部分总体分析 2002年《大纲》将"完形填空"调整为"英语知识运用"之后明确规定:英语知识运用测试的要点是词汇、语法和结构. 英语知识运用采用多项选择完形填空(Multiple Choice Cloze Test)的形式来考查.完形填空(Cloze)又称综合填空或短文填空,出现于20世纪50年代西方语言测试的实践中,1956年被应用于外语测试.在我国用于英语测试则是从20世纪70年代开始的.完形填空是用来测试考生的基础知识和语言运用能力的一种题型,对考生的语法结构、词义搭配和阅读理解能力进行综合考查(measuring overall ability). 完形填空的设计和应用,是基于格式塔心理学(Gestalt Psychology)和心理语言学(Psycholinguistics)的理论:人们在感知、认知事物的时候,总是以整体信息为主的.尽管有时获得的信息并不十分完整,但人们会下意识地将不完整的部分补全,构成一副完整的图画来认知.举例来说,当我们看到图1和图2时,我们会自然地把它们分别看做是一个圆和一个三角形,而不是一段曲线和三个点. 图1 图2 同样,在语言表达和理解的过程中,也需要理解信息的整体.尽管其中有一些词或短语被抽去,但通过语段提供的冗余信息,人们仍然能够推知被抽去的信息,从而达到对文章的理解.根据这一原理,命题人使用完形填空这一种题型——从一篇短文中删去一些信息,留出空格,由考生补全——来考查语言知识和语言综合运用的能力. (一)英语知识运用部分命题的基本指导思想 英语知识运用部分命题的指导思想是:通过完形填空的形式不仅考查考生对于不同语境中规范的语言要素(包括词汇、表达方式和语法结构)的运用能力,而且还考查考生对语段特征(如连贯性和一致性等)的辨识能力.这就意味着"英语知识运用"部分的试题由过去注重对单句语言点的考查向对语篇能力(discourse competence)的考查转移,这一考查重心的转移要求考生能够对不同语境中语言使用的规范性、得体性和篇章特征有较强的辨识能力. (二)选材特点 英语知识运用部分的材料为一篇240-280词的文章,通过对近十年英语知识运用试题的分析可以看出,这部分试题在体裁上多以议论文为主,说明文为辅,而题材上逐渐趋于与现代社会生活密切相关的文章.详见下表. 年份 体裁 题材 主要内容 2000 议论文 经济 农民的生产和消费 2001 议论文 政治法律 政府对媒体炒作干扰司法公正进行立法限制 2002 说明文 社会生活 传媒技术的发展 2003 议论文 文化教育 对青少年的教育问题 2004 议论文 社会生活 对青少年犯罪原因的探讨 2005 说明文 科普 人类的嗅觉 2006 议论文 社会生活 无家可归者增多的现象 2007 议论文 政治历史 西班牙和葡萄牙前殖民地独立后面临的问题 2008 说明文 生物科学 高智商与遗传疾病 2009 议论文 从动物智商研究中得到的有关人类智力的启示 根据英语知识运用部分试题的命题原则和近年的命题趋势,可以发现这部分试题在选材上有以下一些特点: 第一,选材内容不会过于专业.避免让一部分人凭常识答题,否则,会影响测试的信度和效度.因此,含有大量专有名词、数量词和技术性词语的短文一般不会出现.题材多以社会生活、文化教育类为主,科普性文章有再出现的趋势,但仍以与人们生活密切相关的知识为主.题材有一定重复性,如98、99年以工业为主,03、04年以青少年问题为主. 第二,文章难度适中.一般情况下,对大部分考生来说,文章在没有进行删词以前读起来几乎没有困难. 第三,文章内部组织结构较为严密,无论是说明文还是议论文,多以总——分或总——分——总的形式出现.由于引语与短文其他部分的难度不会十分一致,所以一般不选用含有很多引语的文章. (三)试题的具体命制 (1)语法知识试题的命制."英语知识运用"部分考查考生对语法结构知识的实际运用能力.因此,在最后阶段的复习时,考生应当加强对一些基础性的语法知识的掌握,切忌只死记一些特殊的语法现象,因为命题专家不会对那些特殊的语法现象进行考查. (2)词汇试题的命制.词汇是考查重点,试题数量一般在12~15题之间,测试的知识主要包括:短语搭配、近形词、近义词、惯用法等.新的趋势是加重了了对词汇的得体性、规范性及同一词汇的特殊意义的考查.要求考生在实践中运用恰当的词汇,选择准确的词汇. (3)篇章结构试题的命制.试题数量一般在2~3题之间.主要涉及以下几点:①句与句之间的逻辑关系;②某个意群的整体意思;③文章的整体结构;④作者对某一问题的观点、态度、口气.在试题的设计上,主要反映在表示逻辑关系的连词、副词的考查上.考生要注意的是:一些题看似是考查词汇,实际上需要先根据上下文推断出这一意群的整体意思,然后才能在此基础上判断四个选项中哪一个更符合.解此类试题的关键是:一,利用上下文解题.二,关注句际之间的逻辑关系. 二、英语知识运用部分的解题思路与技巧 英语知识运用部分主要考查考生的逻辑思维、推理判断和对各种语言现象的综合运用能力.考生在解答该部分试题时,应掌握相当的词汇量,具备一定的阅读能力,并能够正确、恰当地运用语法和词汇知识.它在形式上是对每个空格所给出的四个选项做出正确选择,实际上是测试考生对整篇短文的理解和对语言知识的综合运用能力.它非常强调语境,即上下文的联系,因此,选择正确与否往往取决于对上下文的理解是否准确以及对语言知识的运用是否恰当. 解答英语知识运用部分的试题需要一定的技巧,其中把握好答题的思路与节奏是在考场上正常发挥乃至超常发挥的前提.根据测试学的原理及解题经验,我们提出"一个原则,三步走"的答题思路,供考生参考. "一个原则"就是:紧跟文章的思路进行分析、选择,而不是按照自己的思路.要使自己的思路与文章的思路保持一致,而不是使文章的思路随着自己的思路走. "三步走"指解答过程分三步走: 第一,迅速浏览一遍全文,弄清文章主题.知道文章要说明或介绍的是什么. 第二,逐句阅读文章,仔细分析,认真填空.弄清句子意思与结构以及句与句、句群与句群之间的关系. 第三,作答后,再通读一遍全文,看是否通顺合理.注意句与句之间,段与段之间是否一致、连贯. 综观历届考生的答题情况,最典型的失误是在解题方法上出现问题.部分考生在答题时只关注要填入词汇、短语的句子,而不对短文的内容进行总体的把握,"只见树木,不见森林",其结果是:第一,理解上出现严重的偏差,导致选择错误;第二,延长了答题时间,因为答题的线索有时就隐藏在上下文中.因此,考生在完成所有问题之后,还应该通读全文,在宏观上检查并核实所确定的每一个选择能否使短文的内容与结构完整,在微观上看每一个试题的选择是否都有充分的依据.只有这样才能获取高分. 下面就英语知识运用测试的主要内容谈一下解题思路. (一)语法结构知识 语法知识是理解英语的基础.通过对历年试题的分析可以看出,单纯考查语法知识题的比重并不是很大,这是要体现《大纲》注重考查考生的英语交际能力,鼓励考生用听、说、读、写的实践代替单纯的语法知识学习的测试导向.但这并不意味着对考生语法掌握程度的要求降低了,因为只有对语法知识有较好的掌握,才能在实际的语言运用环境中,识别各种语法现象,对文章进行理解并做出正确的判断.下面就重点语法内容加以总结,供考生参考. 1. 主谓一致关系 主谓一致(SubjectVerb Agreement)指谓语动词要与主语的中心词语在"人称"和"数"的方面保持一致.这是在解题过程中需要时刻注意的.解答这类问题的关键是要找准主语的中心词语. Example 1 The novels of John Cheever to a literary tradition that is concerned primarily with manners. [A] belongs [B]belong [C]is belonged [D]are belonged belong是不及物动词,不能用于被动语态,首先排除C和D.本句的中心主语是the novels(复数),所以此题的正确选项是B. 2. 虚拟语气 在英语中,由于说话人的意图不同,动词的表现形式也随之不同,这就需要用不同的"语气"来表达.英语中有三种语气: (1)陈述语气(the Indicative Mood)用来陈述事实.如: The teacher is very popular with his students. (2)祈使语气(the Imperative Mood)提出请求、命令等.如: Please open the door. (3)虚拟语气(the Subjunctive Mood)表达主观愿望和假设的情况.如: If I were you, I would throw it away. 所谓虚拟,简单地说,就是真实情况并非如此.由于虚拟语气历来是英语学习中的一个难点,尤其是它还有一些特殊形式和用法,所以也可能成为考点. Example 2 Had they examined the question over a much longer period, 1 over the whole life cycle, they 2 reached a different conclusion. 1. *[A] particularly [B] exclusively [C] preferably [D] precisely 2. [A] must have [B] will have [C] may have [D] would have 首先根据"Had they examined the question..."得出这是一个省略if的虚拟条件句.在表示过去情况的虚拟条件句中,从句中的谓语用had+过去分词,主句中的谓语用would have + 过去分词.所以,第2题应该选择D. 3. 非限定性动词 非限定性动词是动词的非谓语形式,主要指不定式(the Infinitive)、分词(the Participle)和动名词(the Gerund).非限定性动词的使用功能多样,且容易混淆,所以它们历来是各种英语考试中的重点. Example 3 We did make our comforts and discomforts 1 , but basically others 2 our experiences to us. We were virtually helpless and 3 the mercy of others, usually our parents. As we grew older, increased intellectual development resulted in increased behavioral options' 4 available to us. 1 [A]knowing [B]known [C]know [D]to know 2 [A]distributed *[B]dictated [C]allocated [D]ordered 3 [A]with [B]in *[C]at [D]on 4 [A]became [B]become [C]becoming [D]to become 第1题中make在作为表示"致使"意义的动词时,其后的动词及其逻辑主语是被动关系,所以跟在其后的动词要用过去分词形式,如He was trying to make himself understood.所以此题应选B. 第4题考查动名词的用法.根据上文,resulted in后面应是一个名词、名词词组或相当于名词的成分.只有选项C能构成一个前面带有名词词组所有格的动名词结构,这里的increased behavioral options是become在逻辑上的主语.所以此题应选C. Example 4 There was a big drop during the sunspot years of 1986 and 1987, and the number of people 1 from diseases caused by a lymphocyte deficiency 2 doubled during the tremendous solar explosion of February 1986. 1[A]suffered [B]suffer [C]suffering [D]to suffer 第1题考查了现在分词做定语的知识.在and连接的后一并列从句中, 1 from diseases caused by a lymphocyte deficiency 2 这个成分是修饰限定主语the number of people,起定语作用的.在四个选项中虽然选项A、C、D都有做定语的功能,然而从上下文的语意以及三个选项各自表示的时态、语态功能来判断,the number of people是suffer的逻辑主语,是动作suffer的发动者,所以此题选C项suffering最合适. Example 5 Experts speculate that hardships might prompt some Russian scientists their know-how on the black market. [A]to sell [B]to selling [C]sell [D]sold to 此题应选A.prompt后接不定式构成prompt to do sth.. 4定语从句 定语从句有限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句之分.限制性定语从句与其先行词有着不可分割的关系,如果缺少了从句,先行词便不能明确地表示所指对象.例如: This is the car (that) I bought last year. 而非限制性定语从句和它的先行词之间的关系就比较松散,它并不是先行词不可缺少的组成部分,而仅仅是对先行词的一种补充说明.例如: Im seeing the manager tomorrow, when he will be back from New York. 从对历年的研究生英语试题的分析来看,在英语知识运用题中主要以选择适当的关系代词或关系副词的形式来考查这部分知识. Example 6 When the work is well done, a 1 of accident-free operations is established 2 time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum. (1999年第44题) 1[A]regulation *[B]climate [C]circumstance [D]requirement 2[A]where [B]how [C]what [D]unless 第2题的正确选项是A.where在这里引导一个定语从句"where time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum",先行词是climate.在这里where相当于in which,即in the climate.本句意思是:安全规划实施得好,一种无事故操作的工作环境就会建立起来,这样因工伤造成的时间损失将降至最低限度.而how(如何,怎样,怎么)和unless(除非)在语法上可行,但意义上不通.what(什么)无论从语法还是意义上都讲不通. 5句子的平衡(并列连词及词组) 英语中经常用并列连词和词组来保持句子的平衡,常见的有:and, but, or, as well as, not only...but also..., neither...nor..., either...or...等.解答这类题时还要注意毗邻原则,即谓语应与其相邻的名词或代词保持一致. Example 7 Concerns were raised 1 witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to 2 guilty verdicts. (2001年第49题) 1[A]what [B]when [C]which [D]that 2[A]assure [B]confide *[C]ensure [D]guarantee 第1题选D.该题考查同位语从句和句子平衡的知识.that引导的同位语从句做concerns的同位语,对它进行进一步的解释.that引导的同位语从句本来应该直接跟在concerns的后面,但因为句子太长,会显得句子头重脚轻,从而使句子失去平衡,所以放在了后面. 6代词的用法 代词在英语中的使用很广泛,并且形式多样,考查代词也成为检测考生英语语言水平的一个重要考点.在近年的研究生英语考试中,代词部分主要考查不定代词和关系代词的用法(关于关系代词的题例讲解请参见定语从句部分的讲解). Example 8 A variety of activities should be organized 1 participants can remain active as long as they want and then go on to 2 else without feeling guilty and without letting the other participants 3 . (2003年第36题) 1[A]if only [B]now that *[C]so that [D]even if 2[A]everything [B]anything [C]nothing [D]something 3[A]off *[B]down [C]out [D]alone 第2题考查考生对不定代词的用法和区分能力.A项everything不能与else连用.B项anything 与else构成词组表示"别的什么",但其中有"别的以外任何事情"的含义.从上下文的语意来看,此处用anything不妥.C项nothing 一般用在nothing else than(只不过,仅有)中.D项something 与else 构成词组表示"别的事情",用在肯定句中,从语法和前后语意关系上来看,D项是正确选项. (二)词汇 词汇是表达思想的最基本要素.根据《大纲》精神,"英语知识运用"不但要求考生掌握所规定的词汇,而且要求考生在实践中运用恰当的词汇,选择准确的词汇.这就是说,学习词汇不能只记词义,更重要的是学会恰当地运用.词汇考查的重点是近义词的辨析以及固定词组和习惯搭配.根据对近十年英语知识运用题的统计分析,词汇题平均约占英语知识运用试题总题量的70%,是考试命题的重点.其中动词和名词是历年考查的重中之重.我们把近十年的英语知识运用中的词汇考查点整理如下,供考生参考. 年份 考点 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 动词 3 7 3 4 5 7 8 6 7 6 名词 2 5 5 6 4 1 1 1 2 2 形容词 1 2 4 3 2 5 1 2 2 4 副词 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 3 1 固定用法 1 1 3 1 2 0 1 1 4 4 词汇题 百分比 80% 75% 75% 75% 60% 75% 60% 65% 90% 85% 从上表可知,掌握好词汇知识对于考生做好"英语知识运用"这部分考题十分重要.而根据历年考生的反馈,英语知识运用部分之所以一直是考生的弱项,很大原因在于,考生对词汇的掌握不够扎实,没有达到《大纲》对能力考核的目标.这主要是考生在词汇学习的观念上,受到社会上一些"速成"、"速记"法的影响,对词汇的掌握仅仅局限于机械地背诵词汇表,只记忆词的一两个意思,至于这个词的其他语意和用法并不了解和掌握,造成考生对词汇的掌握是只知其一不知其二.恰恰是这个误区,导致了考生在做"英语知识运用"部分试题时出现很多"拿不准"的现象,在考场上由于时间紧迫就盲目地选了一个,造成不必要的失分.词汇学习的目标是要达到能够正确、恰当地运用词汇,记住词义只是达到这一目标的前提.所以在这里我们建议考生养成良好的学习习惯,从词汇运用的高级层次上来学习英语. 在解答此类题时,着眼点主要有以下两个: 1根据上下文语义做出选择 Example 1 Many professions are associated with a particular stereotype. The 1 image of a writer, for instance, is 2 a slightly crazy-looking person, locked in an attic, writing 3 furiously for days 4 . 1 [A]historic [B]antique [C]senior [D]classic 2*[A]in [B]of [C]with [D]for 3 [A]away [B]off *[C]on [D]down 4 [A]on finish [B]on final [C]on end [D]on stop 此例中的第1题的正确答案是D.题中第一句中的a particular stereotype和人们对作家的印象的描述a slightly crazy-looking person, locked in an attic, writing 3 furiously for days 4 为选择答案提供了依据.这是一种 "classic(典型的)"作家形象. 再看第4题.首先选项A、D被排除,因为没有此词组.那我们是选择B项on final (最后),还是C项on end (连续)呢?根据上文语境,作家把自己锁在阁楼里,日复一日地写(writing 3 furiously for days ), 所以这个动作应该是不停地,连续地,此题选C. 从词义方面着眼,在几个考查方式中,特别提醒考生注意的是常用词的偏用义的考查.命题者有时会用常见词汇的生僻意思来设计考题,如1999年完型填空的第2题和第3题,请详见历年真题解析部分.因此,在学习词汇时,尤其是一些常用词汇,要尽量记住它的各种含义,而且最好是记住该词的英文解释. 2 根据固定搭配做出选择 Example 2 This constant need to prove that one is as good as, 1 not better than, one's fellow-competitor creates constant 2 and stress, the 3 causes of unhappiness and illness. 1 [A]while *[B]if [C]when [D]lest 2 [A]casualty [B]fatality [C]concern [D]anxiety 3*[A]very [B]suitable [C]one [D]multiple 第2题考查词义及搭配.正确答案是D.这句话的大意是:他们需要不断地证明自己与其竞争者一样优秀,因而造成了持续的紧张与焦虑,这也正是他们的苦恼与疾病的根源.A. 伤亡,B. 不幸,天命,C. 关心,关注,D. 焦虑,这四个选项中只有anxiety符合上下文语意,并且stress通常与anxiety搭配使用. Example 3 ...in that year, over a million couples 1 their marriages dissolved, often at high financial and social2. 1.[A]let [B]wanted [C]wished *[D]had 2.[A]fare [B]duty [C]charge [D]cost 此题考查考生对固定搭配的掌握程度.线索词是at,只有cost可与at搭配,所以此题选D.duty与on, in, off搭配;charge的搭配是in (the) charge of, under the charge of. 总的来说,熟记和掌握常用词组及习惯搭配,熟悉词汇的意义并掌握其用法,是做好此题的关键. (三)语篇分析 语篇分析能力是英语知识运用测试的另一个考查重点.在英语知识运用试题中主要考查考生能否理清文章的语意结构和语意逻辑关系. 语篇就是通过一定的衔接手段将一些意义相关的句子按照逻辑组织在一起的语意整体.由词组句,由句成篇.在这一过程中,词语的使用和逻辑关系起了重要作用.我们把它们分别称为"词汇纽带"和"逻辑纽带".如果我们能够迅速、准确地找出文章的"词汇纽带"和"逻辑纽带",也就能够准确地理解文章大意,把握作者思路. 1 词汇纽带 词汇纽带主要指在一个语篇当中同义词、反义词的使用和关键词的重复.因为当作者围绕一个话题论述时,表达的意义都是相关的,所以不可避免地要使用同义词、反义词和重复关键词以保持文章的线索.知道了语篇的这一特点,我们在做英语知识运用试题时,恰当地运用这一技巧将有助于迅速找出文章主题,并为解题提供了宝贵线索. 我们以2001年全国研究生入学考试英语试卷中的短文为例,列出该文各段的主题词,以便于考生掌握利用词汇纽带找出文章主题的技巧. government,ban,payments to witnesses,newspapers,buy up,people involved in,cases; legal controls over the press,bill,payments to witnesses,control the amount; self regulation,sufficient control; media,privacy controls,legislation,judges; the Human Rights Bill,privacy,public figures,protect; Press freedoms, judges; Witness payments,witnesses,received payments,telling stories to newspapers,exaggerate their stories, guilty verdicts. 根据以上词语,文章的主题一目了然:政府对媒体炒作干扰司法公正进行立法限制.同时,文章的结构也很清楚了. 下面我们结合两个例题分析这类试题的答题思路. Example 1 Manpower Inc, with 560 000 workers, is the world's largest temporary employment agency. Every morning, its people into the offices and factories of America, seeking a day's work for a day's pay. (1997年第41题) [A]swarm [B]stride [C]separate [D]slip 此题的答案是A.提供线索的关键词是with 560 000 workers和largest.第二句又提到了这些临时工人到各个公司和工厂上班的情况.可以想像56万工人每天早晨上班的情形——人们涌入各个公司和工厂.Swarm一词正好描述了这样一个场面.其他的词都不准确. Example 2 At the beginning of the century, medical scientists made a surprising discovery: that we are 1 not just of flesh and blood but also of time. They were able to 2 that we all have an internal "body clock" which 3 the rise and fall of our body energies, making us different from one day to the 4 . These forces became known as biorhythms; they create the 5 in our everyday life. 1*[A]built [B]shaped [C]molded [D]grown 2*[A]demonstrate [B]illustrate [C]present [D]propose 3 [A]designates [B]fluctuates [C]calculates *[D]regulates 4 [A]second [B]latter *[C]other [D]next 5 [A]"ups" and "downs" [B]"goods" and "bads" [C]"pros" and "cons" [D]"highs" and "lows" 在解答第5题时,考生应注意上下文的提示,特别是同义表述.这一段的主要内容是人体生物钟(body clock)的发现,及生物钟对人体的影响.如果我们注意到上文中的the rise and fall of our body energies,就可得知生物钟影响人体的能量节律的起落.这样第5题空格处应选一个与"起落"有关的词.而A选项通常用于描述人生的沉浮.正确答案D选项恰当地描述了这一高低变化.the rise and fall of our body energies和"highs" and "lows" in our everyday life正好是一对同义表述. 2 逻辑纽带 逻辑纽带包括表示转折、引申、列举、因果、对比等逻辑关系的过渡词,通常是连词、连接性副词和词组.英语知识运用部分很注重考查考生的语篇意识,因此正确运用表示逻辑关系的过渡词是历年来的一个重要的考查内容.下面列举出常见的逻辑关系过渡词: 转折however(2002年第29题、1998年第47题、2007年第9题、2008年第14题), yet, but, anyhow, anyway, nevertheless, while(2005年第1题), whereas (1997年第48题,2005年第9题),instead, instead of( 2000年第41题); 递进besides, further, moreover, most important, in addition, furthermore, too, also(2005年第16题), and then, again, indeed(2006年第1题); 条件、让步if, only if(2000年第42题),in spite of, despite, though, although(2002年第31题,2006年第7题), even so, even though (1997年第44题), rather, after all, regardless, while(2006年第14题); 原因、 结果because(2004年第22题,2003年第24题), since, as (1997年第42题), for, due to, so, therefore, thus, hence, in that , accordingly, consequently, as a result, as a consequence, so that (2003年第35题), to this end; 比较、对比likewise, at the same time, in the same way, in comparison, in contrast, like, as, just as, conversely, on the contrary (2003年第38题),while(2007年第12题); 列举、举例first, second, in the first place, in the second place, next, another, finally, still, namely, that is, for instance(2009年第14题), for example(2003年第28题), as an example, specifically, in particular; 时间关系before(2001年第36题),after, until, till,meanwhile,subsequently. 强调certainly, indeed, above all(2009年第18题),surely, most important, in fact, no doubt, truly, obviously 以上这些连词、连接性副词和词组能够显示出作者的思路及文章意义重心的变换.因此,掌握逻辑过渡词,是把握作者思维脉络和篇章结构的重要手段. 下面我们举一个例子简单地说明一下. Example 3 It can, of course, be argued that though the vast majority of people contribute to the funds of social security equally, working-class persons are more likely to receive social security benefits than upper-class persons. This is true for those benefits which can be classed as being for forms of diswelfare, to use Titmusss term, i.e. a form of monetary compensation for the hardship they suffer through the operation of the social and economic system-benefits for industrial disability, unemployment and illness as well as supplementary benefits. It is not, 1 , true of retirement pensions and they after all account for at least half the expenditure of social security widely defined. Since retirement pensions are paid to all who have paid the necessary number of contributions they involve a negative form of vertical redistribution of income—from the poor to the rich— 2 retired persons of higher income groups live longer than those of lower income groups. 1. [A] furthermore [B] therefore [C] however [D] otherwise 2. [A] though [B] if [C] because [D] while 第1题是一个比较典型的逻辑关系题.考生只有把握上文和下文的内容,弄清上下文之间的语义关系,才能选出正确答案.这段选文主要是讲社会保障金在不同收入人群中的分配所引起的争议——低收入人群比高收入人群更有可能得到社会保障金.第2句This is true for those benefits which...和第3句It is not, 1 , true of...分别陈述了两种情况.而第3句在内容上与第2句构成了一种转折的语义关系.所以此题选C. however.而furthermore表示递进,therefore表示因果,otherwise表示补充,这三个选项显然都不合适. 我们再来看第2题.此题也需要对上下文有一个总体的把握才能做对.前面一句是说退休金发给所有已经缴纳一定款额的人,这样收入低的人们就陷入了一种消极的收入垂直再分配——从低收入人群流向高收入人群.我们再看空格后的一句,高收入的退休者比低收入的退休者活得长.很显然,后一句是前一句的原因,它们之间是因果关系.所以C. because为正确选项. 3 段落主题句的作用 在解题时可以利用短文第一句和最后一句把握文章主题,找出答题线索.通过对近十年英语知识运用短文首尾两句话的分析与总结发现,虽然只是短短的两句,却包含着非常丰富的信息. 文章开头一句(有时是主题句,有时不是主题句)往往会或多或少地包含以下信息: what→涉及的事件/事物及其状况或特征 where→地点 when→时间 who→相关的人物 why→相关原因 how→有关的论点 下面是1999年~2008年研究生入学考试英语试卷中使用过的短文的首句,我们把其中分别包含的信息整理如下: Research on animal intelligence always makes me wonder just how smart humans are.(2009年what,how) The idea that some groups of people may be more intelligent than others is one of those hypotheses that dare not speak its name. (2008年what,how); By 1830 the former Spanish and Portuguese colonies had become independent nations.(2007年when,who, how); The homeless make up a growing percentage of America's population.(2006年who ,how); The human nose is an underrated tool.(2005年what,how); Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinguency(crimes committed by young people)focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. (2004年what,how); Teachers need to be aware of the emotional, intellectual, and physical changes that young adults experience. (2003年who,how); Comparisons were drawn between the development of television in the 20th century and the diffusion of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. (2002年what, how, when); The government is to ban payments to witnesses by newspapers seeking to buy up people involved in prominent cases 1 the trial of Rosemary West. (2001年who,what,how); If a farmer wishes to succeed, he must try to keep a wide gap between his consumption and his production. (2000年who,why,how); Industrial safety does not just happen. (1999年what,how); 从第一句话,我们就能知道这篇短文大概要谈论的内容. 我们再来看看这十篇短文末尾一句的特点.作为全文最后一句,作者通常会把自己的观点加以总结或强化,构成首尾呼应.这样一来,文章保持了一致和连贯,同时也为解题提供了依据. 尾句通常包含以下信息: conclusion→结论 suggestion→建议或提示 summary→对全文的概括或总结 result→事件发展的结果 influence→事情的影响或后果 下面是历年研究生入学考试英语试卷中使用过的短文的最后一句: _20?? the results are inconclusive.(2009年influence) His argument is that the unusual history of these people has 19 them to unique evolutionary pressures that have resulted in this 20 state of affairs.(2008年conclusion) Egalitarian sentiments were often tempered by fears that the mass of the population was 20 self-rule and democracy.(2007年conclusion) As Edward Blotkowsk... puts it, "There has to be 20 of programs. What we need is a package deal."(2006年conclusion) The brain finds it best to keep smell receptors 19 for unfamiliar and emergency signals 20 the smell of smoke,which might indicate the danger of fire.(2005年conclusion) All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, 20 a direct causal relationship has not yet been established. (2004年conclusion,summary) 38 they can help students acquire a sense of commitment by 39 for roles that are within their 40 and their attention spans and by having clearly stated rules. (2003年suggestion) And generalizations have proved difficult. (2002年conclusion ) Concerns were raised 19 witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to 20 guilty verdicts. (2001年result) Naturally he will try to borrow money at a low 9 of interest, but loans of this kind are not 10 obtainable. (2000年result,suggestion) This may mean the difference between operating at 10 or at a loss. (1999年influence,suggestion) 由此可见,抓住首尾两句是对文章从语篇层面进行总体把握的关键. 综上所述,考生在做英语知识运用题时应有一个整体意识,对全文内容进行总体把握.英语知识运用是对运用英语的能力进行综合考查,其对语法知识、词汇运用和语篇能力的考查是交织在一起的.我们遇到一道考题,有时不能简单地说,它是考语法或是考词汇的,往往需要我们运用语法和词汇两方面的知识才能够解答.因此,做好英语知识运用题是建立在能够熟练运用、融会贯通语法、词汇和语篇知识的基础之上的. 第二部分阅读理解A部分命题的特点和规律 阅读理解A部分试题主要是考查考生对英语词汇、短语、句型等习惯表达方式,尤其是对出现在篇章中的语言知识和语言技能的掌握情况.从另一方面来说,它也包含了对英语国家和世界其他国家的政治、经济、文化、历史、社会等背景以及科技发展动态、热门话题乃至西方人的思维、交流方式等非语言性知识和学习能力方面的考查.因此,阅读理解A部分试题是一个综合性很强的能力测试试题. 阅读能力一直是各种英语考试考查的重点.在全国硕士研究生入学考试中阅读理解的A部分占了整个试卷分值的40%,而且其他部分与阅读理解也密切相关.英译汉以它为基础.完形填空只有理解整篇文章的意思才能选对答案.分析典型范文又是写作的基础.此外,掌握外语最重要的两个因素——词汇量和语感,都是主要通过阅读获得的.因此考生要在考研英语中获得成功,阅读理解是关键. 一、阅读理解A部分命题的基本指导思想 1《大纲》对阅读理解A部分的评价目标 命题小组在设计试题时,一方面要在试题中考查考生是否能够读懂不同类型的文字材料(生词量不超过所读材料总词汇量的3%,包括信函、书报和杂志上的文章),而且还考查考生是否能够读懂与本人学习或工作有关的文献、技术说明、产品介绍等.根据所读材料,考生应该能够:(1)理解主旨要旨;(2)理解文中的具体信息;(3)理解文中的概念性含义;(4)进行有关的判断、推理和引申;(5)根据上下文推测生词的词义;(6)理解文章的总体结构以及上下文之间的关系;(7)理解作者的意图、观点或态度;(8)区分论点和论据. 2阅读理解A部分命题的基本原则 试题质量的优劣关系到考试是否达到预期目的,因此命制试题是整个考试的中心环节.命题小组在命制试题时必须遵循以下基本原则: (1)试题应该严格按照考试大纲的要求进行命题,即按照考试大纲规定的评价目标和试卷结构进行命题.命题内容不超过大纲的评价目标,题型和题量也要严格按照大纲的规定.在选取阅读理解A部分的文章时,要注意文章的选材范围和难度,力图让考生在充分理解文章的基础上对问题做出正确的回答,同时要使试题具有适当的难度和较高的效度、信度和区分度. (2)试题指向性必须清楚、准确、周密,易于理解,不出怪题、偏题.试题应该无科学性错误和避免不健康的、带有各种偏见的语言材料.答案要明确、合理、惟一. (3)在命制阅读理解A部分试题时,应该特别注意以下四个方面:第一,必须以考查获得信息为目的,不以考查语法或词汇为目的.当然考查考生通过上下文猜测词义的能力还是必要的.第二,应该避免出只根据一般常识而不用阅读文章就能得出答案的题目.第三,以考查文章提供的主信息为重点,考查考生挖掘文章中的信息能力为目的,命制考查多种层次、多种范畴信息的题目.第四,考查点对语言材料内容的覆盖面应该尽可能全面,这是阅读理解A部分试题命制的最重要的原则. (4)题干和选项的命制应该遵循的几个原则如下: 首先,关于题干的命制.第一,题干应仅描述一个单一的问题,最好是一个问句或一个不完全的陈述句.题干和选项皆不宜过长,都要简洁、清楚,考点明确,尽量减少不必要的词语.在各选项中共同使用的文字或术语应该反映在题干上.第二,题干和选项中不应含有与所考查内容无关的材料.尽量避免在题干中使用否定词.一旦在题干中出现了否定词,应该特别予以强调,如用黑体或者全大写.第三,题干与正确选项应避免使用相同的修饰词语,以防给考生提供选择答案的线索.第四,题干与每一个选项的搭配都应该在逻辑上、形式上、语气上完整无缺.命制试题时不能只留心题干与正确选项的搭配和表述,而忽视与干扰项的搭配,使考生得到暗示.各选项必须互不包容,否则,他们间的逻辑关系就会暗示正确选项,而使该题失去其应有的效度. 其次,关于备选项的命制.第一,各选项的长度、难度和语言结构应该大致相同.因为如果在命制这类试题时,命题者为使正确项绝对正确,致使其长度或结构异于其他选项,那么这些有异选项往往会成为考生乱猜的对象.第二,各干扰项要有迷惑性,才能起到适当的干扰作用.一方面干扰项不能错得太明显,否则形同虚设,反而使考生比较容易利用排除法找到正确答案;另一方面,大部分考生都选择某一干扰项也不理想.第三,同一个题目的选项的排列应按同一原则、同一逻辑顺序、同一规律和方向进行.例如可以按照时间的先后、数值的大小等规律排列.各题应该大致按从易到难的顺序排列.因为考生在临场应试时有个逐渐适应的过程.这样的排列会使他们稳定情绪,顺利进入正常的心理状态.试卷中正确选项字母序号(如[A],[B],[C],[D])出现的次数应该大致相等,这样可避免某些考生因只猜某一选项而"幸运地"获取高分的可能性. 最后,关于干扰项的特点.通过对历年考研真题的分析和研究,我们总结了干扰项的如下特点:第一,看似合理,实则以偏概全、断章取义.要么利用在文章中没有提到的生活常识编造选项;要么把文章中的事实和细节当主旨,把片面的、次要的观点当成主要观点.因此考生一定要从文中找依据、找答案,"合理项"不一定就是正确选项.在主旨题和主要观点题中,应该排除细节干扰,把握文章的主题.第二,偷梁换柱,张冠李戴.要么对原句中的细微处做了改动,要么截取原文中有的词语或类似的结构进行编造.要么在备选项中把因说成果、把别人的观点或作者反对的观点说成是作者的观点.因此考生要注意,过于相似的选项不一定正确,除非它的程度、范围等都与原文完全一致.考生要注意:"原词越多,对的可能性也就越小".第三,用常规含义代替偏用词义.在英语语言中,许多词或短语存在多义的现象,考生如果只掌握其常用的基本词义是不够的.在阅读实践中,更不能用已掌握的常用词义去代替偏用词义,从而导致对词或句意的误解或费解.命题者在命制词义句意题时,就通常把要考查的词或句意的常规含义作为干扰项以麻痹考生.因此,考生必须根据上下文推测其在特定语境下的含义.第四,过度引申.备选项虽然是从原文中推理引申出来的,但是却超出了文章允许的范围.考生切勿过度发挥,一切以原文为本. 二、阅读理解A部分文章的选择 阅读理解A部分的文章自2002年起改为四篇,每篇由四个至六个段落构成(也有例外,如:2002年第四篇共九段).每篇的长度控制在400~500个单词左右. 1题材的选取 从历年试题命制的情况看,主要是西方国家尤其是美、英、加和日本等国广泛关注的社会话题和热点问题.其内容包罗万象,社会生活类文章在命题中占据了绝大部分,带有普及性质的自然科学和科技方面的文章以及商业经济文章基本上每年都会涉及.命题所选文章的题材虽然广泛,但是按照一般的命题原则,题目的内容应该以不超出短文所给的为限,考生仅凭文章提供的信息就可以做出正确的判断.但是这并不意味着,宽广的知识与阅读理解A部分无关,相反,考生如果平时注意积累这方面的知识,则会大大地提高考试成绩. 历年题材分配如下: 2000年~2009年 社会生活、伦理 科普 商业经济 历史文化教育 合计 14 9 11 8 百分比 34% 21% 26% 19% 2文章的来源 所选文章多来自较新的英文资料,能很好的反映当代英语语言的特点. 社会生活和文化教育的文章主要来源于:Newsweek(新闻周刊),Time(时代周刊),The Washington Post(华盛顿邮报),USA Today(今日美国),The Times (泰晤士报),The Guardian(卫报)和wwwusnewscom(美国新闻在线). 科普类文章主要来源于:National Geographic(国家地理杂志),Scientific American(科学美国人),Science(科学杂志),New Scientists(新科学家), Discovery(探索杂志),Nature(自然). 商业经济类文章主要来源于:Business Week(商业周刊),The Economist(经济学家杂志)和Wall Street Journal(华尔街杂志). 其他:Telegraph(英国电信日报),Independent(独立日报)和International Herald Tribune(国际先驱论坛). 3文章的体裁 从历年命制的试题看,被选取的文章的体裁绝大多数为议论性的、评论性的和报道性的;多为分析论证的文章,很少有纯抒发情感和描写风景的文学篇章.这同攻读硕士学位研究生期间将面对的大量概括性强、抽象思维为主的材料有关.简言之,主要有论说文、说明文和新闻报道. 清楚了解考研文章的体裁特点,有助于考生把握文章结构,理清作者阐述脉络,从而轻松解题. 议论文的特点是:(1)写作目的是陈述观点或表明态度;(2)文章围绕一个中心展开,各个段落之间关系紧密,无论是反证还是正面论述,都分别是从不同的角度和侧面阐述这一中心;(3)每一段也是围绕一个中心,段落内部句子之间关系紧密. 说明文的特点是以事实为主,观点为辅.对于此类文章,细节题目较多,考生应着重把握具体信息的真伪、程度和作者的态度. 三、各类题型的特点及解答技巧 (一)主旨题 该类题型在历年题型中出现的频率极高,每年必出.它考查了考生综合、概括、归纳和分析问题的能力,要求考生通过对文章的阅读,迅速把握文章或段落的主题中心.主旨题可分为文章主旨和段落主旨两种.命题模式如下: 1文章主旨题 (1)The passage is mainly about . (2)What is the main point the author makes in the passage? (3)Which of the following best reflects the main idea of the passage? (4)What is the main topic for this passage? (5)The proper subject of this article is . (6)The best title for this passage might be . (7)What the author tries to suggest may best be interpreted as . (8)The passage was written to explain . 2段落主旨题 (1)From the first (2nd, 3rd, 4th,etc) paragraph, we learn that . (2)From the last (1st, 2nd,etc) paragraph the conclusion can be drawn that . (3)We learn from the first (last,etc)paragraph that . 3隐蔽的文章主旨题 (1)From the passage we learn (infer) that . (2)What can be inferred from the passage? (3)What the author tries to suggest may be interpreted as . Example Much of the language used to describe monetary policy, such as "steering the economy to a soft landing" or "a touch on the brakes", makes it sound like a precise science. Nothing could be further from the truth. The link between interest rates and inflation is uncertain. And there are long, variable lags before policy changes have any effect on the economy. Hence the analogy that likens the conduct of monetary policy to driving a car with a blackened windscreen, a cracked rear-view mirror and a faulty steering wheel. Given all these disadvantages, central bankers seem to have had much to boast about of late. Average inflation in the big seven industrial economies fell to a mere 23% last year, close to its lowest level in 30 years, before rising slightly to 25% this July. This is a long way below the double-digit rates which many countries experienced in the 1970s and early 1980s. It is also less than most forecasters had predicted. In late 1994 the panel of economists which The Economist polls each month said that America's inflation rate would average 35% in 1995. In fact, it fell to 26% in August, and is expected to average only about 3% for the year as a whole. In Britain and Japan inflation is running half a percentage point below the rate predicted at the end of last year. This is no flash in the pan; over the past couple of years, inflation has been consistently lower than expected in Britain and America. Economists have been particularly surprised by favourable inflation figures in Britain and the United States, since conventional measures suggest that both economies, and especially America's, have little productive slack. America's capacity utilisation, for example, hit historically high levels earlier this year, and its jobless rate (56% in August) has fallen below most estimates of the natural rate of unemployment—the rate below which inflation has taken off in the past. Why has inflation proved so mild? The most thrilling explanation is, unfortunately, a little defective. Some economists argue that powerful structural changes in the world have up-ended the old economic models that were based upon the historical link between growth and inflation.(1997年Passage 5) From the passage we learn that . [A] there is a definite relationship between inflation and interest rates [B] economy will always follow certain models [C] the economic situation is better than expected [D] economists had foreseen the present economic situation 题干问的是从整个文章可以推断出下面哪个说法,实际上是在变相地问全文的中心思想是什么.全文都在论述目前的经济形势比预想的要好很多([C]选项).第一段和第二段提到经济运行难以预测,然而近来经济形势却比往年都好.第三段首句又提到"它(指平均通货膨胀率)比多数预测者预测的数字要低",接着通过具体数据对此观点加以说明.第四段首句也指出"经济学家对英美两国有利的通胀率特别感到诧异". 4主旨题的特点 无论是在段落中还是在文章中,是明显还是隐蔽,主旨的提出主要有四种情况. (1)首段或首句开门见山指出中心或讨论的问题. Example The full import may take a while to sink in. The NT Rights of the Terminally Ill law has left physicians and citizens alike trying to deal with its moral and practical implications. Some have breathed sighs of relief, others, including churches, right-to-life groups and the Australian Medical Association, bitterly attacked the bill and the haste of its passage. But the tide is unlikely to turn back. In Australia—where an aging population, life-extending technology and changing community attitudes have all played their part—other states are going to consider making a similar law to deal with euthanasia. In the US and Canada, where the right-to-die movement is gathering strength, observers are waiting for the dominoes to start falling.(1997年Passage 1) From the second paragraph we learn that . [A] the objection to euthanasia is slow to come in other countries [B] physicians and citizens share the same view on euthanasia [C] changing technology is chiefly responsible for the hasty passage of the law [D] it takes time to realize the significance of the law's passage 该段是典型的首句主旨题.以首句为段落主题句,其他各句都围绕此句展开论述.正确答案为[D]选项.考生若对sink in理解有困难,还可以从段落总结归纳出主旨大意. (2)文章中间或段落中间给出中心. Example Could the bad old days of economic decline be about to return? Since OPEC agreed to supply-cuts in March, the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel, up from less than $10 last December. This near-tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock, when prices quadrupled, and 1979~1980, when they also almost tripled. Both previous shocks resulted in double-digit inflation and global economic decline. So where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time? The oil price was given another push up this week when Iraq suspended oil exports. Strengthening economic growth, at the same time as winter grips the northern hemisphere, could push the price higher still in the short term. Yet there are good reasons to expect the economic consequences now to be less severe than in the 1970s. In most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol than it did in the 1970s. In Europe, taxes account for up to four-fifths of the retail price, so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past. Rich economies are also less dependent on oil than they were, and so less sensitive to swings in the oil price. Energy conservation, a shift to other fuels and a decline in the importance of heavy, energy-intensive industries have reduced oil consumption. Software, consultancy and mobile telephones use far less oil than steel or car production. For each dollar of GDP (in constant prices) rich economies now use nearly 50% less oil than in 1973. The OECD estimates in its latest Economic Outlook that, if oil prices averaged $22 a barrel for a full year, compared with $13 in 1998, this would increase the oil import bill in rich economies by only 025%~05% of GDP. That is less than one-quarter of the income loss in 1974 or 1980. On the other hand, oil-importing emerging economies—to which heavy industry has shifted—have become more energy-intensive, and so could be more seriously squeezed. One more reason not to lose sleep over the rise in oil prices is that, unlike the rises in the 1970s, it has not occurred against the background of general commodity-price inflation and global excess demand. A sizable portion of the world is only just emerging from economic decline. The Economist's commodity price index is broadly unchanging from a year ago. In 1973 commodity prices jumped by 70%, and in 1979 by almost 30%. (2002年Text 3) We can draw a conclusion from the text that . [A] oil-price shocks are less shocking now [B] inflation seems irrelevant to oil-price shocks [C] energy conservation can keep down the oil prices [D] the price rise of crude leads to the shrinking of heavy industry 文章前面两段描述出一种现象,指出最近石油价格大幅上涨;接着在文章中间部分提出文章主旨"这次油价上涨不会造成经济衰退的原因",并在以后各段分别论述这些原因.正确答案为[A]选项.这里涉及的阅读技巧是当有but,however,yet,while之类的转折连词出现时,该篇/段/意群/句的中心往往是这些词后面的部分. (3)文章末段或段落末句对全文或全段进行总结归纳,得出中心思想. Example Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots. Unlike most of the world's volcanoes, they are not always found at the boundaries of the great drifting plates that make up the earth's surface; on the contrary, many of them lie deep in the interior of a plate. Most of the hot spots move only slowly, and in some cases the movement of the plates past them has left trails of dead volcanoes. The hot spots and their volcanic trails are milestones that mark the passage of the plates. That the plates are moving is now beyond dispute. Africa and South America, for example, are moving away from each other as new material is injected into the sea floor between them. The complementary coastlines and certain geological features that seem to span the ocean are reminders of where the two continents were once joined. The relative motion of the plates carrying these continents has been constructed in detail, but the motion of one plate with respect to another cannot readily be translated into motion with respect to the earth's interior. It is not possible to determine whether both continents are moving in opposite directions or whether one continent is stationary and the other is drifting away from it. Hot spots, anchored in the deeper layers of the earth, provide the measuring instruments needed to resolve the question. From an analysis of the hot-spot population it appears that the African plate is stationary and that it has not moved during the past 30 million years. The significance of hot spots is not confined to their role as a frame of reference. It now appears that they also have an important influence on the geophysical processes that propel the plates across the globe. When a continental plate comes to rest over a hot spot, the material rising from deeper layers creates a broad dome. As the dome grows, it develops deep fissures (cracks); in at least a few cases the continent may break entirely along some of these fissures, so that the hot spot initiates the formation of a new ocean. Thus just as earlier theories have explained the mobility of the continents, so hot spots may explain their mutability (inconstancy).(1998年Passage 5) The passage is mainly about . [A] the features of volcanic activities [B] the importance of the theory about drifting plates [C] the significance of hot spots in geophysical studies [D] the process of the formation of volcanoes 文章总共三段,第一段对热点下定义:热点及其火山痕迹是板块移动的标志.第二段和第三段主要论述热点理论的作用.全文主旨句是第三段的前两句,它们承上启下,指出热点不仅有参照作用,还对推动板块移动的地质物理学过程提供了解释.正确答案为[C]选项. (4)文章或段落中不明确给出中心,考生要根据各段中心或各句的内容进行总结,自己推出主旨. Example A history of long and effortless success can be a dreadful handicap, but, if properly handled, it may become a driving force. When the United States entered just such a glowing period after the end of the Second World War, it had a market eight times larger than any competitor, giving its industries unparalleled economies of scale. Its scientists were the world's best, its workers the most skilled. America and Americans were prosperous beyond the dreams of the Europeans and Asians whose economies the war had destroyed. It was inevitable that this primacy should have narrowed as other countries grew richer. Just as inevitably, the retreat from predominance proved painful. By the mid-1980s Americans had found themselves at a loss over their fading industrial competitiveness. Some huge American industries, such as consumer electronics, had shrunk or vanished in the face of foreign competition. By 1987 there was only one American television maker left, Zenith. (Now there is none: Zenith was bought by South Korea's LG Electronics in July.) Foreign-made cars and textiles were sweeping into the domestic market. America's machine-tool industry was on the ropes. For a while it looked as though the making of semiconductors, which America had invented and which sat at the heart of the new computer age, was going to be the next casualty. All of this caused a crisis of confidence. Americans stopped taking prosperity for granted. They began to believe that their way of doing business was failing, and that their incomes would therefore shortly begin to fall as well. The mid-1980s brought one inquiry after another into the causes of America's industrial decline. Their sometimes sensational findings were filled with warnings about the growing competition from overseas. How things have changed! In 1995 the United States can look back on five years of solid growth while Japan has been struggling. Few Americans attribute this solely to such obvious causes as a devalued dollar or the turning of the business cycle. Self-doubt has yielded to blind pride. "American industry has changed its structure, has gone on a diet, has learnt to be more quick-witted," according to Richard Cavanaugh, executive dean of Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. "It makes me proud to be an American just to see how our businesses are improving their productivity," says Stephen Moore of the Cato Institute, a think-tank in Washington, D.C. And William Sahlman of the Harvard Business School believes that people will look back on this period as "a golden age of business management in the United States."(2000年Passage 1) What can be inferred from the passage? [A] It is human nature to shift between self-doubt and blind pride. [B] Intense competition may contribute to economic progress. [C] The revival of the economy depends on international cooperation. [D] A long history of success may pave the way for further development. 答案:B 解析:文章的主题既不在首段,也不在末段,需要考生综合各段内容得出.从全文看,文章叙述了美国经济从繁荣到衰败再到繁荣的过程,且特别强调竞争给美国带来90年代的经济复苏.[B]选项"激烈的竞争可能促进经济的发展"正合全文大意. 5主旨题的解题技巧 根据上述这四种情况,制定如下解题对策: 第一,因为考生需要读完全文才能把握文章主题,所以在解答此类题时,考生不要急于去找答案,不论它出现在什么位置都把它作为最后一道题来做.在做完另外几道题后,无疑会有助于考生加深对整个文章的理解. 第二,看到文章主旨型题目,考生要着重理解首段或末段,同样,段落主旨题也要重视首末句.这是英语文章中出现中心思想最频繁的位置. 第三,文章主旨出现在中间的比较少见.这样的主旨句一般兼起承上启下的作用.遇到文章中前后段意思转折时,考生应该提高警惕,它往往是主旨所在.段落中情况也类似. 第四,如果文章中没有明确的主题句,主题思想要通过各段的主要内容进行归纳.这时考生就要着重看各段的首末句.试题中的Title 题也属于该种情况.考生必须通读全文,才能得出答案. 解题中还有一些具体实用的解题技巧: 首先,关于主题句的判断方法.第一,段落主题句的判断要看该段的第二句或第三句.如果它们是对第一句进行阐述,那么第一句就是主题句;如果是对第二句进行阐述,那第二句就是主题句;主题句也可能出现在末句.当最后一句是对全段进行总结时,该句就是主题句.对于主题句在句中的情况,当段落中出现转折时,该句很可能是主题句.文章主旨所在段落的判断与此相同.第二,作者有意识地反复重复的观点通常是主旨.第三,首段出现疑问句时,该问题就是全文探讨的内容,对该问题的解答就是文章主旨.第四,作者提出文章主旨时,常常伴有文字提示,如therefore,thus,but,however,in short 等等. 其次,选项特点.正确选项特点:(1)不出现细节信息;(2)不含过分肯定或绝对意义的词.干扰项特点:(1)一般以偏概全,只是文章的细枝末节,不能涵盖全文内容;(2)出现细节性的名词信息;(3)过于笼统. (二)作者观点题和态度题 在一篇文章中,不管作者对某一观点是支持、反对还是中立,是同情、冷漠还是失望,是批评还是赞扬,主观还是客观,都表达了作者一定的观点和态度.只是这些观点态度的提出有的直截了当,有的隐含在字里行间,有的通过所用词语的褒贬来体现,有的则需要通读全文,把握主旨才能领会.一般情况下,所选的文章不带有强烈的感情色彩,因此不会引起太大的争议和分歧. 此类题型可细分为作者态度题(表明作者的好恶)和作者观点题(表明作者对某事物的观点).题干中的关键词或词组有attitude,opinion,tone等等.其命题模式如下. 1作者态度题 (1)What is the tone (mood) of the passage? (2)The author's attitude towards...might be summarized as(seems to be) . (3)Which of the following can best describe the attitude of the author towards...? (4)The author is most critical of . 2作者观点题 (1)According to the author, . (2)In the author's opinion, . (3)What is the author's opinion (idea) about? (4)The author thinks (believes, suggests, deems, asserts) that . (5) In the author's eyes... 态度题的选项一般是形容词,按照作者对所阐述问题的态度进行分类,可以分为: 积极类:objective(客观的), impartial(公正的),helpful(有帮助的),positive(正确的),supporting(支持的),admiring(羡慕的),interesting(引起兴趣的),unbiased(没有偏见的),concerned(关心的),confident(自信的),impressive(给人印象深刻的),optimistic(乐观的)等; 中立类:detached(超然的), factual(实际的), indifferent(无关紧要的),impassive(冷漠的),uninterested(不感兴趣的),ambivalent(矛盾的),apathetic(无动于衷的),neutral(中立的,不确定的),impersonal(不带个人色彩的)等; 消极类:disgusting(令人厌恶的),critical(批评的),negative(否定的),intolerable(不能忍受的),disappointed(失望的),subjective(主观的),biased(有偏见的),doubtful(怀疑的),compromising(折中的),worried(担心的),pessimistic(悲观的),hostile(敌对的)等. 历年作者态度题: 年份 正确选项 干扰项 2007 Text 2 [B] skeptical(消极类) [A] Supportive(积极类) [C] Impartial(中立类) [D] Biased(消极类) 2006 Text 2 [D]is sympathetic to the RSC(积极类) [A] is supportive of both sides(积极类) [B] favors the townsfolk's view(积极类) [C] takes a detached attitude(中立类) 2004 Text 4 [A] optimistic(积极类) [B] Confused. (消极类) [C] Carefree. (积极类) [D] Panicked. (消极类) 2003 Text 4 [B] reserved consent(积极类) [A] strong disapproval(消极类) [C] slight contempt(消极类) [D] enthusiastic support(积极类) T2002 Text 3 [A] optimistic(积极类) [B] sensitive (中立类) [C] gloomy (消极类) [D] scared(消极类) 2001 Passage 4 [B] objective (积极类) [A] optimistic(积极类) [C] pessimistic(消极类) [D] biased(消极类) 3作者态度题的解题技巧 第一,某一事物是好是坏.作者对它是支持还是反对,态度都非常明确,而带中立色彩的词最不可能是正确答案.问作者对某事物的态度时,表示"客观"的词多为正确选项,如:objective, impartial, unbiased等;问作者对其提到的人们的观点的态度时,答案只能是肯定或否定,支持或反对.如:critical, approval, opposition, supporting等. 第二,既然写了文章,那么作者的态度就不可能漠不关心,因此见到indifferent,uninterested这类词可以首先排除. 第三,注意不要把考生自己的好恶态度糅进其中,要注意区分作者本人的态度和作者引用的观点的态度. 第四,当作者的态度没有明确提出时,考生要学会根据作者使用的词语的褒贬性去判断作者态度,如:wonderful(y),successful(y),positive(ly),active(ly),negative(ly), unfortunate(ly), doubtful(ly)等. Example Under the new Northern Territory law, an adult patient can request death probably by a deadly injection or pill—to put an end to suffering. The patient must be diagnosed as terminally ill by two doctors. After a "cooling off" period of seven days, the patient can sign a certificate of request. After 48 hours the wish for death can be met. For Lloyd Nickson, a 54-year-old Darwin resident suffering from lung cancer, the NT Rights of Terminally Ill law means he can get on with living without the haunting fear of his suffering: a terrifying death from his breathing condition. "I'm not afraid of dying from a spiritual point of view, but what I was afraid of was how I'd go, because I've watched people die in the hospital fighting for oxygen and clawing at their masks, " he says.(1997年Passage 1) The author's attitude towards euthanasia seems to be that of . [A] opposition [B] suspicion [C] approval [D] indifference 作者通过living without the haunting fear of his suffering这一肯定性词语表达出自己的态度是[C] approval. 解答态度观点题应注意两点: 第一,区别作者的态度与其他人的态度.问文中某人对某事物的态度一般归入事实细节题. 第二,选项可能不再是态度明确的肯定或否定的形容词,而改为带有程度限制的形容词.一般带有绝对化或过于强烈的表示态度的词必错,如strong/complete/entire/enthusiastic等.而有保留的态度比较客观,因此常常是正确选项,如reserved(保留的)/qualified (有限制的,有条件的)/tempered (有所控制的)/guarded(慎重的)/consent (赞同)等. 4作者观点题的解题技巧 第一,文章陈述的内容并非都是作者的观点.作者引用别人的观点时,是作为支持或抨击的对象,因此别人的观点是为了证明作者观点的论据. 第二,作者观点一般与文章主旨相关联. (三)词义/句意题 命制的试题中经常有要求考生对词语和句子做出解释的题目.两者都主要侧重于考查考生通过上下文去判断词义、句意的能力.词义题的考查有两种:一是超纲词含义的推断,另一个是熟词僻义或是在特定场合的意思. 1词义句意题命题模式 (1)The phrase (word, sentence)in line...) most probably means . (2)By "...", the wrier (probably ) means . (3)What does the author probably mean by "..." in... paragraph? (4)The phrase (word, sentence) suggests . (5)From the passage,we can infer that the word "..."is . (6)According to passage, what is "..." ? (7)When the author says that..., he means . 2词义题的解题技巧 (1)根据上下文进行推理猜测 考生必须明确,不管所考的词语有多超纲,都能够通过上下文得出其意思;不管这个词有多熟悉,都必须通过上下文得出其在特定场合的意思.在克服畏惧心理的同时,也要避免直接用自己熟悉的意义去解释词义.对句子的理解也要通过前后关联的句子进行推测.比如利用前后的比较对照关系、利用文中给出的定义或对它进行的重述、利用所举的例子进行归纳、利用同义/近义/反义词、利用特殊标点符号等等. Example We live in a society in which the medical and social use of substances (drugs) is pervasive: an aspirin to quiet a headache, some wine to be sociable, coffee to get going in the morning, a cigarette for the nerves. When do these socially acceptable and apparently constructive uses of a substance become misuses? First of all, most substances taken in excess will produce negative effects such as poisoning or intense perceptual distortions. Repeated use of a substance can also lead to physical addiction or substance dependence. Dependence is marked first by an increased tolerance, with more and more of the substance required to produce the desired effect, and then by the appearance of unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the substance is discontinued.(1997年Passage 3) The word "pervasive" (Line 1, Paragraph 2) might mean . [A] widespread [B] overwhelming [C] piercing [D] fashionable 所要解释的词pervasive后有冒号,起解释说明的作用.因此通过冒号后的内容就可以知道该词的含义.作者在冒号后面列举了物质在日常生活的各个方面的使用,因此可推知[A]选项"分布广泛的,普遍的"为正确答案. (2)对超纲词含义的推断 生词是造成阅读困难的障碍之一.阅读短文中的词汇一般不超过大纲的词语范围,但也有5%左右的派生词和合成词,2%~3%的超纲词.对于部分超纲而且专业性较强的词,在较早的几年里命题者还曾给出过其汉语意思,如:1991年Passage 1中的chlorophyll(叶绿素)、carbohydrates(碳水化合物);1992年Passage 2中的inertia(惯性),Passage 3中的hockey(曲棍球);1993年Passage 1中的babbling(咿呀学语),Passage 2中的bureaucratic(官僚主义的),Passage 3中的monopoly(垄断);1994年Passage 4中的pancreas(胰腺)、genes(基因),Passage 5中的mold(霉).但是后来的命题趋势中取消了这种形式,其意图在于让考生更多地去猜测词语含义.其实很多短文中出现的超纲词汇并不影响对全文的理解,而且我们可以以下几种方法去猜测其含义. ①构词法:掌握常见的英语词根、词缀,通过分析生词的词根、前缀、后缀去推测词义.如:1996年Passage 5中的nonfundamentalist(非原教旨主义 non-非,不;fundament基础,基本原理;-al 形容词后缀;-ist…主义者). ②词性加搭配:先判断生词在文章中的词性,再看它与哪些词语可以搭配,最后根据自己的常识猜测其大概含义. ③找同义词、同义解释或反义词和反义解释:在上下文中找出生词的其他表达法,可能是近(反)义词、一个解释或一些暗示. ④找同位词:上下文中可能有类似生词出现的句子的平行结构,找出其中和生词处于同一位置的词去推测. 考生可以适当记些词根词缀,以备不时之需.如: geo-:前缀,表示"地球",如:geography:地理学, 地理;geology:地质学 ;geophysic:地球物理学; hydro-: 前缀,表示"水","液体",如:hydrobiology:水生物学;hydro-cooling:水冷法;hydro-mania:投水狂,自溺;hydroelectric:水电的; over-:前缀,表示"越过,超过",如:overcrowdedness:过于拥挤;overestimate:估计过高,过高评价;oversensitive:过于敏感;overplease:使过分高兴;overactive:过于活跃. Example Moreover, demographers see the continuing shift south and west joined by a related but newer phenomenon: More and more, Americans apparently are looking not just for places with more jobs but with fewer people, too. Some instances— Regionally, the Rocky Mountain states reported the most rapid growth rate—371 percent since 1970 in a vast area with only 5 percent of the US population. Among states, Nevada and Arizona grew fastest of all: 635 and 531 percent respectively. Except for Florida and Texas, the top 10 in rate of growth is composed of Western states with 75 million people—about 9 per square mile.(1998年Passage 4) The word "demographers" (line 1, paragraph 8) most probably means . [A] people in favor of the trend of democracy [B] advocates of migration between states [C] scientists engaged in the study of population [D] conservatives clinging to old patterns of life 根据上下文demographers提到的两个例证都涉及人口,因此他们应该是 "人口统计研究方面的人".[C]选项"研究人口的科学家,也就是人口统计学家"是该词的正确含义.同时,也可运用构词法的知识, demo=people, graph=write, -er指人.因而猜出它指"记录人口方面数据的人". (3)句意题解题技巧 试题中出现句意题时,考生需要根据上下文的内容联系去猜测句意;或将所考的句子与它的上下文进行关系对照,找出它与上下文的关系,如转折、并列、递进、解释说明等,然后针对不同的关系,对上下文采取取非、找同义等方法进行解题. Example It is also less than most forecasters had predicted. In late 1994 the panel of economists which The Economist polls each month said that America's inflation rate would average 35% in 1995 In fact, it fell to 26% in August, and is expected to average only about 3% for the year as a whole. In Britain and Japan inflation is running half a percentage point below the rate predicted at the end of last year. This is no flash in the pan;over the past couple of years, inflation has been consistently lower than expected in Britain and America.(1997年Passage 5) The sentence "This is no flash in the pan" (Line 5, Paragraph 3) means that. [A] the low inflation rate will last for some time [B] the inflation rate will soon rise [C] the inflation will disappear quickly [D] there is no inflation at present 此题需要根据上下文推测句意.在This is no flash in the pan之前,作者给出近来美国、英国和日本的通货膨胀率都低于经济学家预期的数字;之后又指出在过去的几年,英国和美国的通货膨胀率始终低于预期的水平.由此可以推断,该句意思是"并非一时现象,并非是昙花一现". [A]选项"低通货膨胀率将会持续一段时间"符合题意. (4)选项特点 正确选项特点:第一,词义题中,不是熟词的常规含义.第二,句意题中,正确选项不含有意义过于绝对化的词语,而是使用不肯定语气词或意义解释深刻. Example The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating under competitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it.(1994年Passage 1) In line 8,paragraph 1, "the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes" means . [A] Americans are never satisfied with their incomes [B] Americans tend to overstate their incomes [C] Americans want to have their incomes increased [D] Americans want to increase the purchasing power of their incomes [A]、[B]选项都使用了带有绝对意义的词语,如never 和overstate因此可直接排除.[C]和[D]意义相近,但是[D]的意义更为深刻,因此可知[D]为答案.而且,此处的income不是常规词义"收入",而是"收入的购买力",故不可选答案[C]. 干扰项特点:第一,与所考词汇形似.第二,如果考的是熟词,含有常规词义的一般是错误选项.第三,根据命题原则,正确选项不会使用与原文过多相同的字眼,因此,对句子的解释中含有过多原句中已有的词和短语的选项一定是错误的. (四)推理引申题 推理引申题主要测试考生理清上下文逻辑关系的能力,要求考生领悟所读材料中句子之间的逻辑关系,并且根据材料提供的已知信息进行分析、归纳和推理.判断推理能力对深刻理解一篇文章十分重要,特别是理解作者字里行间的言外之意、作者的观点、写作意图和态度.命题专家在命制此类试题时通常要求考生对文章或段落进行深层推理和理解,不可能把试题的答案非常直接地暴露于选项中.因此考生应该注意把它与事实细节题区别开来,推理引申题必须以事实为依据,但是得出的结果又绝对不是事实本身,即不能"就事论事". 推理引申题对一些基础比较薄弱的考生而言是一个难点,考生似乎对文章读懂了(可称之为"自我感觉良好"),然而在解题时却始终不知如何下手,试题也做得不好.这是考生没有领会命题专家设置推理引申试题的用意的缘故.事实上推理引申题考查的不仅是考生对字面意义的理解,更要求考生透过文章的字里行间去推测作者未明说而又意欲表达的含义.解此类题,考生应该根据文中的材料进行有关的判断、推理和引申. 广义的推理引申题涵盖的范围极其广泛.它既可以就总体信息也可以就具体或特定信息提问.总体提问通常包括文章主旨题、作者观点态度题;局部提问通常指段落主旨题、猜测词义/句意题.但是为了突出这四种出现频率很高且带有典型性的题型,我们下面谈到的推理引申题是排除以上情况的狭义概念. 1命题模式 狭义的推理引申题题干中常有infer,imply,suggest,deduce,conclude等词出现,常见的命题模式有: (1)It can be inferred from the text/the last paragraph/the first sentence that... (2)We can infer (assume, deduce) that . (3)Which of the following can (not) be inferred from the passage? (4)It is implied (indicated, suggested) in the passage/the first paragraph/the second sentence/the example that . (5)By... the author implies (suggests, indicates )that . (6)The passage implies in the passage that . (7)The author suggests(indicates)in the passage that . (8)It can be concluded from the passage that . (9)From the passage /the third paragraph/the last sentence/the example that... we can draw the conclusion that . (10)What conclusion can be drawn from the passage (the first paragraph, the last paragraph)? 引申推理题按照解题思路主要可以分为暗指题、推理题和结论题. 暗指题的特点是要求读者体味"言外之意",信息只能从字里行间获得.对于这类试题,考生首先要分清是明述还是暗指,即言内还是言外;其次,要尽最大可能与命题者达成"共识",因为命题人事先确定的答案不允许考生的认识有任何偏差;最后,要对文章中的有关事实和观点进行分析和研究,按照事实发展的逻辑次序,总结出合情合理的结论. Example 1 If experiments are planned and carried out according to plan as faithfully as the reports in the science journals indicate, then it is perfectly logical for management to expect research to produce results measurable in dollars and cents. (1999年Passage 5) The author implies that the results of scientific research . [A] may not be as profitable as they are expected [B] can be measured in dollars and cents [C] rely on conformity to a standard pattern [D] are mostly underestimated by management 原句是个假设条件句,指出"假如科学实验像科学杂志登载的科学报告显示的那样完全按事先的计划去规划和实施,那么,对管理层来说,期待研究能够产生可以用金钱衡量的结果是完全合理的".此处正话反说,作者的言外之意是,科学实验总有不可预测的现象,产生的结果也难以预测,因此不能肯定有效益.[A]选项"可能不像预料的那样有利可图"才是作者真正想要表达的含义. Example 2 Why mention the elementary schools? Because thanks to these schools our early mechanics, especially in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, were generally literate and at home in arithmetic and in some aspects of geometry and trigonometry. Acute foreign observers related American adaptiveness and inventiveness to this educational advantage. As a member of a British commission visiting here in 1853 reported, "With a mind prepared by thorough school discipline, the American boy develops rapidly into the skilled workman."(1996年Passage 4 ) It is implied that adaptiveness and inventiveness of the early American mechanics . [A] benefited a lot from their mathematical knowledge [B] shed light on disciplined school management [C] was brought about by privileged home training [D] owed a lot to the technological development 这里第二段的首句指出:敏锐的外国观察家将美国人的适应能力和创新能力与这个教育优势联系在一起.this往回复指前述的最后内容,也就是前一段末句谈到的"技工们有文化并且熟知算术、几何学、三角学",从而可知这种教育优势就是熟练掌握数学.因而作者暗指的意思是[A]选项"它们很大程度上得益于数学". 推理题与暗指题虽然有许多相似之处,但是其思路与方法更侧重于推理,主要测试考生的思维判断能力,即由已知的事实为依据去获得未知的信息.考生解题时首先要把握推理范围——大至段落或全文,小至词语或句子;其次要严格遵循逻辑规律,保持正确的思维过程和严密的逻辑;再次可以利用相关部分提供的事实、背景知识和常识去推理. 干扰项的特点:根据文章中某些事实亦可以推导,然而又答非所问. (1)推断文章内容的含义和引申意思 Example Examples of benefits or costs of the current concentration wave are scanty. Yet it is hard to imagine that the merger of a few oil firms today could re-create the same threats to competition that were feared nearly a century ago in the U. S., when the Standard Oil Trust was broken up. The mergers of telecom companies, such as WorldCom, hardly seem to bring higher prices for consumers or a reduction in the pace of technical progress. On the contrary, the price of communications is coming down fast. In cars, too, concentration is increasing-witness Daimler and Chrysler, Renault and Nissan—but it does not appear that consumers are being hurt.(2001年Passage 4) From Paragraph 4 we can infer that . [A] the increasing concentration is certain to hurt consumers [B] WorldCom serves as a good example of both benefits and costs [C] the costs of the globalization process are enormous [D] the Standard Oil Trust might have threatened competition 命题者设置的难点是第二句中定语从句的理解.原文谈到"目前难以预料,数家石油公司的合并是否会再次对竞争造成威胁.100年前美国的标准石油联合公司(Standard Oil Trust)被解散,就是因为当时人们担心它会对竞争构成威胁",由此引申推理可知[D]项"标准石油联合公司可能曾对竞争形成过威胁".此外,考生还需要注意,might have threatened是虚拟语气,表示对过去的推测. (2)运用数字进行推理 Example Emerging from the 1980 census is the picture of a nation developing more and more regional competition, as population growth in the Northeast and Midwest reaches a near standstill. This development—and its strong implication for US politics and economy in years ahead—has enthroned the South as America's most densely populated region for the first time in the history of the nation's head counting. Altogether, the Us population rose in the 1970s by 23.2 million people—numerically the third-largest growth ever recorded in a single decade. Even so, that gain adds up to only 11.4 percent, lowest in American annual records except for the Depression years. Americans have been migrating south and west in larger numbers since World War Ⅱ, and the pattern still prevails. (1998年Passage 4) Discerned from the perplexing picture of population growth the 1980 census provided, America in 1970s . [A] enjoyed the lowest net growth of population in history [B] witnessed a southwestern shift of population [C] underwent an unparalleled period of population growth [D] brought to a standstill its pattern of migration since World War Ⅱ 这是一道涉及数字的题目,从标志词1970s可以定位为文章第三段,本段指出:"20世纪70年代,美国人口总共增长了2 320万——从数字上看,这是有纪录以来10年期人口增长的第三高峰.即使如此,人口总数也只增加了11.4%,除了大萧条时期,这是美国年度记录最低的增长率."因此,[A]选项和[C]选项与文意不符.接着文章第四段谈到人口普查显示出"第二次世界大战以来,美国人不断移居西部和南部,现在这种趋势依然存在".因此可以得出[B]选项是正确答案,而[D]选项与该段内容正好相反. (3)用类比的例子,要求考生进行推理演绎 Example1 There are two basic ways to see growth: one as a product, the other as a process. People have generally viewed personal growth as an external result or product that can easily be identified and measured. The worker who gets a promotion, the student whose grades improve, the foreigner who learns a new language-all these are examples of people who have measurable results to show for their efforts. By contrast, the process of personal growth is much more difficult to determine, since by definition it is a journey and not the specific signposts or landmarks along the way. The process is not the road itself, but rather the attitudes and feelings people have, their caution or courage, as they encounter new experiences and unexpected obstacles. In this process, the journey never really ends; there are always new ways to experience the world, new ideas to try, new challenges to accept. (1995年Passage 2) A person is generally believed to achieve personal growth when . [A] he has given up his smoking habit [B] he has made great efforts in his work [C] he is keen on learning anything new [D] he has tried to determine where he is on his journey 本文指出看待人的成长有两个观点:一是视为结果,一是视为过程.第一段具体讲到第一种观点的详细内容.它是大部分人都持有的观点,看重外在结果因为其可以量化,可以通过具体事例反映出来,如:工人得到升迁、学生成绩提高和外国人学会了一门新的语言.第二段讲第二种观点的详细内容:成长是人在遇到新的经历和意外险阻时表现出来的态度和情感,而不是实在的结果.问的是根据第一种观点,以下哪一种是成长表现.通过文中类比的例子可知只有[A]选项是实在的结果. 结论题与推理题在解题思路和方法上有许多相似之处,但是推理题偏重于推理过程,而结论题偏重于归纳过程.解答结论题时一定要根据题目要求,就短文有关内容做出合乎逻辑的、可靠的结论.有时为了克服片面性,可以扩大阅读范围,否则获得信息的范围太窄,结论便欠妥.因此,解答此类试题既要以事实为依据,也要依据自己的常识和经验;既要重视文章主题,也要重视发展或印证主题的细节;而尤为重要的是把握作者的写作意图.注意过于概括、过于全面或过于细节化的选项,往往属于干扰项. (1)先了解全文,把握主题 考生可以通过首尾段、文章结构、或归纳整理各段信息迅速了解主题.然后再通过主题与细节的关系进行合乎理性的归纳. Example The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, where they are not extremely unattractive. As a result, the support for ambition as a healthy impulse, a quality to be admired and fixed in the mind of the young, is probably lower than it has ever been in the United States. This does not mean that ambition is at an end, that people no longer feel its stirrings and promptings, but only that, no longer openly honored, it is less openly professed. Consequences follow from this, of course, some of which are that ambition is driven underground, or made sly. Such, then, is the way things stand: on the left angry critics, on the right stupid supporters, and in the middle, as usual, the majority of earnest people trying to get on in life. (2000年Passage 5) From the last paragraph the conclusion can be drawn that ambition should be maintained . [A] secretly and vigorously [B] openly and enthusiastically [C] easily and momentarily [D] verbally and spiritually 该段谈到人们对雄心的攻击远多于对它的维护,因此本应是一种健康公开的品质得不到很多支持.第四句和第五句指出了不公开表达雄心带来的不良后果,由此可以推出人们不应该隐瞒自己的雄心.此外,纵观全文,作者提倡的是正确对待雄心,坦言自己的抱负.因此[B]选项"公开而热情地"是作者提倡的对待雄心的正确态度. (2)把握作者的写作意图 Example No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom. (2001年Passage 1) The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate. [A] the process of specialisation and professionalisation [B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study [C] the change of policies in scientific publications [D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs 前一段谈到,业余研究者进入专业领域很难的趋势在某些科学领域尤为突出,英国地质学的发展就说明了这一问题.后一段通过对19世纪英国地质学及其出版物的变化、研究方式的变化、非专业人员研究过程的困难等的陈述,说明专业人员和业余人员之间的分化越来越明显.因此可引申推理出作者的写作目的正是描述[A]选项 "职业化和专业化形成的过程". 2推理引申题的解答技巧 (1)推理引申题的划分 推理引申题按照难易可以分为:简单推理题和复杂推理题.第一,简单的推理题.虽然在原文中不能直接找到答案,但是有间接的暗示和线索.它们与答案之间的关系比较清楚,联系起来后便可以得出答案.而且答案与其他选项差别也较大.第二,复杂的推理题.在原文中找不到明确的解题线索,考生只能根据隐藏在词句后面的含义,根据作者说话的语气,反复分析,才能找到答案,而且干扰项的干扰较强.考生在几个选项中犹豫不定,不知选哪个好.后一种推理题是近几年命题的趋势. Example Here is an example, which I heard at a nurses' convention, of a story which works well because the audience all shared the same view of doctors. A man arrives in heaven and is being shown around by St. Peter. He sees wonderful accommodations, beautiful gardens, sunny weather, and so on. Everyone is very peaceful, polite and friendly until, waiting in a line for lunch, the new arrival is suddenly pushed aside by a man in a white coat, who rushes to the head of the line, grabs his food and stomps over to a table by himself. "Who is that?" the new arrival asked St. Peter. "Oh, that's God," came the reply, "but sometimes he thinks he's a doctor." (2002年Text 1) The joke about doctors implies that, in the eyes of nurses, they are . [A] impolite to new arrivals [B] very conscious of their godlike role [C] entitled to some privileges [D] very busy even during lunch hours 考生要根据全文的主旨以及作者的语气,从那个关于医生的笑话里推理医生和上帝有相似的特点:医生无礼、傲慢,自以为像上帝一样.接着再推测护士对医生的看法是:非常在乎自己上帝般的角色.这种推理是一个比较复杂的过程.[B]选项为正确答案. (2)推理引申题选项特点及其解答技巧 正确项的特点:①不是文中明确说明的内容,因为即使符合原文,没有引申推理就不是正确选项;②如果四个选项全能凭常识判断,其中含义深刻的是正确选项,有时惟一不是常识项的是正确选项. 干扰项的特点:①只是原文的简单复述,而非推断出来的结论,把直接表达当成间接推理;②看似从原文推断出来的结论,然而实际上与原文不符,例如把原文的原因变成了选项中的结果,把原文的手段变成了选项中的目的;③根据常识判断是正确的,然而不是在文章事实或上下文逻辑基础上推理而得出的观点,因此,考生要注意不能根据自己的主观想法或生活经验去推理,因为命题者考查的是考生揣摩作者意图的能力;④虽然以文章提供的事实或内在逻辑为推理依据,但推理过头,概括过度;⑤有部分选项的内容纯属编造. 根据推理引申试题的特点,考生在解答时要注意以下两点: 首先,考生在浏览全文时,一要留意那些似乎话中有话的间接表达句.它们往往采用说半句、打比喻、反过来讲的方式,留有让考生自己作结论或推理的余地.二要留意含义深刻或结构复杂的句子.考生对作者表达的意思不能一下子看透,它们往往是命题点所在. Example If you are part of the group which you are addressing, you will be in a position to know the experiences and problems which are common to all of you and it'll be appropriate for you to make a passing remark about the inedible canteen food or the chairman's notorious bad taste in ties. With other audiences you mustn't attempt to cut in with humor as they will resent an outsider making disparaging remarks about their canteen or their chairman. You will be on safer ground if you stick to scapegoats like the Post Office or the telephone system.(2002年Passage 1) It can be inferred from the text that public services [A] have benefited many people [B] are the focus of public attention [C] are an inappropriate subject for humor [D] have often been the laughing stock 该段末句"如果拿公共服务行业作为替罪羊(scapegoats)去进行评论,你就会处于安全境地"让人读了不是很明白,禁不住要去推想到底为什么公共服务行业这么特殊呢?联系上文,前面的内容说的是"开玩笑取乐要看听众是不是自己同行业的人,如果不是就有可能招人反感".一番推理之后,才明白这句话的另外一层未说明的含义,即选项[D]反映的内容:公共服务行业是大家经常谈论的共同笑料. 其次,根据题干的关键词迅速搜索定位以便确定推理依据的范围,利用语法、词汇、语境线索,了解单句的含义,弄清上下文的逻辑关系,然后按题意进行推理.题目可能要求考生对某句话或数句话进行正确理解或释义,也可能从某句话或某段话中推测出一两件事实. Example In most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol than it did in the 1970s. In Europe, taxes account for up to four-fifths of the retail price, so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past.(2002年Passage 3) It can be inferred from the text that the retail price of petrol will go up dramatically if . [A] price of crude rises [B] commodity prices rise [C] consumption rises [D] oil taxes rise 题干中的关键词是"the retail price of petrol".根据它定位到文章段落,文章先给出事实:原油价格占汽油零售价格的一小部分,其大部分是税收.在欧洲国家这个比例更是高达五分之四,因此原油价格的变动对汽油价格影响不大.据此可以推出二者的潜在关系:影响汽油价格的主要因素是税收;税收涨,油价也大幅度地涨. 3特殊的引申推理题型 (1)针对作者思路的推断 主要是猜测上下文可能出现的信息:首先,考生应该在分析概括文章的写作结构基础上进行推理.如:文章是按事物分类的叙述,而所选材料是其中一类,那么上下文就可能是对其他类别的叙述.其次,如果要求考生猜测短文之后的内容,就应该特别注意其结尾部分;如果要求考生猜测之前的内容,就应该特别注意短文的开始部分.其命题模式如下: It can be assumed that the paragraph, preceding (following) the passage most probably discusses . The paragraph preceding (following) this one is probably about . 此类题型到目前为止还未在研究生考试中的阅读部分出现,但是我们不能排除它是将来的一种新题型. (2)推断文章来源的类型 要求考生在读懂全文的基础上判断本篇文章选自何种书、杂志或文章的一部分.这种题目往往在文章中有所暗示.考生也可根据文章的写作结构、行文风格去推断其文体.此类题的例题模式如下: This passage appears to be a digest of . The passage is most likely a part of a . Example Rumor has it that more than 20 books on creationism/evolution are in the publisher's pipelines. A few have already appeared. The goal of all will be to try to explain to a confused and often unenlightened citizenry that there are not two equally valid scientific theories for the origin and evolution of universe and life. Cosmology, geology, and biology have provided a consistent, unified, and constantly improving account of what happened. "Scientific" creationism, which is being pushed by some for "equal time" in the classrooms whenever the scientific accounts of evolution are given, is based on religion, not science. Virtually all scientists and the majority of nonfundamentalist religious leaders have come to regard "scientific" creationism as bad science and bad religion. The first four chapters of Kitcher's book give a very brief introduction to evolution. At appropriate places, he introduces the criticisms of the creationists and provides answers. In the last three chapters, he takes off his gloves and gives the creationists a good beating. He describes their programmes and tactics, and, for those unfamiliar with the ways of creationists, the extent of their deception and distortion may come as an unpleasant surprise. When their basic motivation is religious, one might have expected more Christian behavior. Kitcher is a philosopher, and this may account, in part, for the clarity and effectiveness of his arguments. The non-specialist will be able to obtain at least a notion of the sorts of data and argument that support evolutionary theory. The final chapters on the creationists will be extremely clear to all. On the dust jacket of this fine book, Stephen Jay Gould says: "This book stands for reason itself." And so it does—and all would be well were reason the only judge in the creationism/evolution debate.(1996年Passage 5) This passage appears to be a digest of . [A] a book review [B] a scientific paper [C] a magazine feature [D] a newspaper editorial 文章首段以20本关于创造论与进化论之争的书开始,然后在第二段和第三段专门介绍金切尔著作的结构内容和突出特点,最后引用斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德的对话对此书做出高度评价,因此可以看出这是一篇典型的书评.英语书评的写作特点是:一般会先给出背景知识,接着介绍该书的主要内容,最后对所介绍的书籍做出一个总体评价.正确答案应该是[A]选项. (3)判断文章写作方法 这种题型在2005年试题中首次出现,体现了阅读理解选择题开始从对局部信息的考查转向对文章组织结构的考查.考生需要了解不同类型英语文章的特点,开头、结尾方式及段落的拓展技巧,只有对文章整体组织结构有了清楚的了解,解答此类题型才能得心应手. Example Everybody loves a fat pay rise. Yet pleasure at your own can vanish if you learn that a colleague has been given a bigger one. Indeed, if he has a reputation for slacking, you might even be ourtaged. Such behaviour is regarded as "all too human", with the underlying assumption that other animals would not be capable of this finely developed sense of grievance. But a study by Sarah Brosnan and Frans de Waal of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, which has just been published in Nature, suggests that it is all too monkey, as well.(2005年Text 1) In the opening paragraph, the author introduces his topic by [A] posing a contrast. [B] justifying an assumption. [C] making a comparison. [D] explaining a phenomenon. 第一段先举例:当知道懒散的同事拿到比自己更多的薪水时,每个人都会很气愤.接着文章指出,这样的行为被看作是"人之常情",它潜在地假定了其他动物没有这种高度发达的不满情绪.转折but在首段出现非常重要,它往往是主题出现的标志,即前面的内容被推翻,之后的新观点才是要论证的主题.该段but之后提出主题:研究表明猴子也有类似的情感.可见,第一段主要使用了类比论证手法,将猴子与人做比较,找出它们的相似之处.因此[C]正确. [A]选项中的contrast(对照)是比较两事物的不同点.[B]选项与原文相反,原文是推翻了一个假定而证明.原文提到了发生在人类身上的一个现象,但文章并未就此提出主题,排除[D]选项. (五)事实细节题 在阅读理解测试中,很大比例的题目是考细节的.事实上在对历年试题的分析中发现,事实细节题的比例占一半以上.文章中的细节通常指的是作者为论证文章主题特别是论证段落的大意而使用的具体信息.因为就议论文和说明文而言,作者在阐明准备论述的问题或观点后,通常会用大量具体的事实细节去说明或支持它们.这些细节可以是理由、例子、数字,也可以采用下定义、作比较、对比、打比方等方法去组织.根据具体考查的内容或范围,事实细节题可以再细分为因果细节题、态度细节题、观点细节题、类比细节题、综合细节题和具体细节题. 1常见的命题模式 (1)According to the passage/ the author, who (what, where, which, when, why, how, etc.) (2)Which of the following is true/correct/ false/not included? (3)All of the following are (not) true, are (not) mentioned except . (4)The author mentions all of the items listed below/all of the following except . (5)We learn from the last paragraph(the first three paragraphs, the text) that . 事实细节的考查内容和形式可以说是五花八门,但是大致可以归纳为以下三种类型: (1)According 型 题干中多用who,what, where, which, when, why, how等疑问词引导,利用词性、同义词、近义词或一些意思相似的语句去考查考生对原文表达细节信息的词汇、惯用法的正确理解,要求考生在文中寻找重要事实与细节.考生可以利用题目的关键词去寻找文中对应词,在对应词周围找答案.注意:此类题中,考what 和why 的最多. (2)隐含的事实和细节型 测试考生对文章展示的细节的综合概括能力;需要在读懂全文的基础上,综合概括作者展示的各种细节. Hunting for a job late last year, lawyer Gant Redmon stumbled across CareerBuilder, a job database on the Internet. He searched it with no success but was attracted by the site's "personal search agent". It's an interactive feature that lets visitors key in job criteria such as location, title, and salary, then E-mails them when a matching position is posted in the database. Redmon chose the keywords legal, intellectual property and Washington, D.C. Three weeks later, he got his first notification of an opening. "I struck gold," says Redmon, who E-mailed his resume to the employer and won a position as in-house counsel for a company.(2004年Passage 1) How did Redmon find his job? [A] By searching openings in a job database. [B] By posting a matching position in a database. [C] By using a special service of a database. [D] By E-mailing his resume to a database. 整个全文的主题是介绍"搜索代理"这种网上谋职工具.而第一段围绕雷德曼通过"个人搜索代理"求职的个人经历展开论述.根据整个段落的细节内容和全文的主题可以判断出[C]选项正确,该选项中的"特殊服务"指的就是"个人搜索代理"这种服务,其他干扰项都不符合文意. (3)正误判断题 此类试题多根据文章的一段或数段提问,考查考生在现实生活中的阅读技能,即快速、准确寻找所需信息的能力.这种题目因为覆盖面较广,搜索定位时间较长,因而难度较大,容易给考生带来心理压力.因此考生遇到此类题型时,首先要调整心理状态,冷静地返回到文章中去寻找答案. 这种题原文往往有罗列,因此其解题三步骤如下:首先,读懂题干和四个选项的内容,提炼和记忆它们的主要意思;其次,带着问题去阅读文章,扫描和搜寻信息点,与题目不相关的句子和语段很快掠过,相关信息语言区域则要放慢速度,细致地对照原文和选项提供的信息;最后,"对号入座",找到解题范围后,立刻排除明显的干扰项,然后"逐个突破",对余下的选项进行筛选,使选项的范围越来越小,判断的准确率越来越高. 正误判断题有两种题型:一正三误和三正一误,即要求考生找出四个选项中惟一正确的一个和要求考生判断哪一个选项与文章不符. 这中间应该特别提到的是后者,又称except题型.其特点是题干中常常含有否定意义词汇except,not (mentioned /true), least等,要求考生辨认哪些细节文章中未提及.解此类题也遵循上面的三个步骤.在对号入座时,可以将原文中提到的内容划线,表示是排除的内容;无法对号的即是答案. Example Money spent on advertising is money spent as well as any I know of. It serves directly to assist a rapid distribution of goods at reasonable prices, thereby establishing a firm home market and so making it possible to provide for export at competitive prices. By drawing attention to new ideas it helps enormously to raise standards of living. By helping to increase demand it ensures an increased need for labour, and is therefore an effective way to fight unemployment. It lowers the costs of many services: without advertisements your daily newspaper would cost four times as much, the price of your television licence would need to be doubled and travel by bus or tube would cost 20 per cent more. (1995年Passage 1) In the passage, which of the following is NOT included in the advantages of advertising? [A] Securing greater fame. [B] Providing more jobs. [C] Enhancing living standards. [D] Reducing newspaper cost. 这是一道典型的except题.先略读题干和选项,得知题目主要问的是广告的益处.定位到文章第一段.这一段列举了广告的四点益处: a有助于产品以合理价格稳定国内市场,以有竞争力的价格进入国际市场;b有利于提高人们的生活标准;c增加了市场需求,扩大了就业;d使许多公共事业的服务价格低廉.对号入座,发现只有选项[A]文中未提及. 2事实细节试题的选项特点和解题技巧 (1)正确选项的特点 ①一般可以在文章中直接或间接找到答案,但是不可能与阅读材料一模一样,而是用不同的词语或句型去表达相同的思想.如:原文用双重否定,选项用肯定的句式;进行同义词替换或句子结构的变换;或原文与选项互换反义词等等.然而这只是词语和句法上的变化,意思是一致的.模式为:题干+正确选项的信息值=/≈原文中某句的信息值. ②体现中心思想,有很多正确选项刚好在段落主旨句中. Example The world is going through the biggest wave of mergers and acquisitions ever witnessed. The process sweeps from hyperactive America to Europe and reaches the emerging countries with unsurpassed might. Many in these countries are looking at this process and worrying: "Won't the wave of business concentration turn into an uncontrollable anti-competitive force?" (2001年Passage 4) What is the typical trend of businesses today? [A] To take in more foreign funds. [B] To invest more abroad. [C] To combine and become bigger. [D] To trade with more countries. 文章的第一段指出当今企业界出现的一个现象,即整个世界正在经历一场前所未有的兼并和收购浪潮.这一并购之风从异常活跃的美国到达欧洲,并以不可比拟的威力影响到新兴经济国家.[C]选项"合并并且变得更加庞大"就是该段首句提到的mergers and acquisitions,即当今企业发展的主要趋势.该段的段落主旨句就是首句. ③在细节的因果关系处常常命题,正确项多为其产生原因或主要原因,也有少量考结果的. Example I believe that the most important forces behind the massive M&A wave are the same that underlie the globalization process: falling transportation and communication costs, lower trade and investment barriers and enlarged markets that require enlarged operations capable of meeting customers' demands. All these are beneficial, not detrimental, to consumers. As productivity grows, the world's wealth increases.(2001年Passage 4) According to the author, one of the driving forces behind M&A wave is. [A] the greater customer demands [B] a surplus supply for the market [C] a growing productivity [D] the increase of the world's wealth 该段剖析了造成并购潮流的数个重要原因,如:交通和通讯成本的日趋下降,贸易和投资壁垒的降低,以及扩大的市场要求扩大业务去满足顾客的需要.[A]选项"顾客更大的需要"是上面提到的第三个因素,因此[A]为正确选项.[B]选项"对市场的供给过于充裕"即市场供应过剩,应该是企业缩小生产的原因.[C]选项"日益增长的生产率"是企业合并后的结果,而[D]选项"世界财富的增长"又是生产力提高的结果. (2)干扰项的特点 ①部分正确,部分错误;②是原文信息,但不是题目要求的内容,如:根据题干中的关键词定位到段落,若选项中出现这个范围之外其他段落的内容必错;③符合常识,但不是文章的内容;④与原句的内容极为相似,但在程度上有些变动,如:将文中并非绝对化的内容绝对化,或偷梁换柱改动一些关键词;⑤明显不是文章的信息,与文中事实相反或不符. (3)事实细节试题的解题技巧 ①主题和事实细节内容是相辅相成的,确定了主题,才能深刻理解细节材料的作用.同样,对具体细节有较为全面的理解,就能够更好地判明主题.考生要记住这一原则:文章的每一词、句、段都和文章主题相关,不是用来证明主题的论据,就是作者要批判的论据. ②文章的事实细节内容不会孤立地出现,它与前后的内容密切相关.文章或段落中的细节都存在某种内在的联系,如:因果关系,类比关系,时间、空间先后关系,考生在阅读中可以利用这些关系将零碎的细节组成一个有机的整体. ③看细节内容要"跳"出来看,即要对文章的组织结构了如指掌,知道这部分细节是为什么主题服务的,才能迅速捕捉到所需的信息. ④一般都可以在文章中直接或间接找到答案.遵循"本本主义",以原文为解题的惟一依据,而不可以自我发挥或凭感觉做题.如:选项中出现文章未涉及的中心词可以首先排除. ⑤考生要留意文章或题干中一些细小的地方,如:正确把握文中代词的所指关系,它们是为了避免上下文重复而使用的.此外还有时态、语气等. Example If the preoccupation of schools with academic work was lessened, more time might be spent teaching children surer values. Perhaps selection for the caring professions, especially medicine, could be made less by good grades in chemistry and more by such considerations as sensitivity and sympathy. It is surely a mistake to choose our doctors exclusively from A-type stock. B's are important and should be encouraged.(1995年Text 4) The selection of medical professionals are currently based on . [A] candidates' sensitivity [B] academic achievements [C] competitive spirit [D] surer values 这段文章基本上是虚拟语气,即所给的细节和情况都与现在的事实相反.虽然最后两句是直接陈述语气,但是却没有直接指明[A]和[B]在这里具体代表什么.而试题问的是现在的情况,因此对整段进行综合分析并且将原句反过来表述而得出,现在的选择标准就是academic work或good grades.因此[B]为正确答案. 四、其他的常考点 (一)引语常考 文章中出现的引语基本上都是考点,只是采用不同的题型而已,如推理引申题、句意理解题、作者意图题等等.特别注意首段引语的三种作用:第一,作为支持作者观点的论据;第二,作为作者批判的靶子;第三,给出文章大背景. Example 1 Tight-lipped elders used to say, "It's not what you want in this world, but what you get." Psychology teaches that you do get what you want if you know what you want and want the right things.(1996年Passage 1) What do the elders mean when they say, "It's not what you want in this world, but what you get?" [A] You'll certainly get what you want. [B] It's no use dreaming. [C] You should be dissatisfied with what you have. [D] It's essential to set a goal for yourself. 此题以引言作为文章首句,作为作者批判的靶子,进而引出真正的观点,即做事前应该制定计划.命题目的在于检查考生能否准确把握what you want和what you get具体化后的含义.原句it's not...but...结构否定的是"你所想",肯定的是"你所得".即,得到什么比想要什么重要.[B]选项为正确答案. Example 2 No company likes to be told it is contributing to the moral decline of a nation. "Is this what you intended to accomplish with your careers?" Senator Robert Dole asked Time Warner executives last week. "You have sold your souls, but must you corrupt our nation and threaten our children as well?" At Time Warner, however, such questions are simply the latest manifestation of the soul-searching that has involved the company ever since the company was born in 1990. It's a self-examination that has, at various times, involved issues of responsibility, creative freedom and the corporate bottom line. (1997年Passage 4) Senator Robert Dole criticized Time Warner for . [A] its raising of the corporate stock price [B] its self-examination of soul [C] its neglect of social responsibility [D] its emphasis on creative freedom 此处引言的作用就是给出文章探讨的大背景.要求考生通过该引言推出责备Time Warner的原因.答案为[C]选项. (二)例子常考 例子经常出现在命题中,而且题型多为作者观点态度题.此类题型主要针对文章中所举之例的作用进行发问.考生应该注意例子的出现无非有两种情况:一是先提观点后举例;二是先举例后提出观点.而该观点就是作者引用例子所要说明或反驳的.因此见到例子后,考生应该迅速查找其上下文,目的必在其中.通过历年真题分析,发现先提观点后举例的情况占多数. Example 1 You can make a mental blueprint of a desire as you would make a blueprint of a house, and each of us is continually making these blueprints in the general routine of everyday living. If we intend to have friends to dinner, we plan the menu, make a shopping list, decide which food to cook first, and such planning is an essential for any type of meal to be served. Likewise, if you want to find a job, take a sheet of paper, and write a brief account of yourself. In making a blueprint for a job, begin with yourself, for when you know exactly what you have to offer, you can intelligently plan where to sell your services.(1996年Passage 1) A blueprint made before inviting a friend to dinner is used in this passage as . [A] an illustration of how to write an application for a job [B] an indication of how to secure a good job [C] a guideline for job description [D] a principle for job evaluation 举例是为了说明或驳斥某个观点,在这篇文章中,例子直接摆在观点句后,是典型的先提观点后举例的形式.作者先表述其观点:You can make a mental blueprint of a desire... and each of us is continually making these blueprints in general routine of everyday living.接下来作者以请人吃饭的例子来说明a mental blueprint of a desire,并把它与"找工作"的方式联系起来,指出两者的相同之处都是要"勾画一幅欲望蓝图".因此,[A]选项为正确答案. Example 2 To take advantage of this tool, some impoverished countries will have to get over their outdated anti-colonial prejudices with respect to foreign investment. Countries that still think foreign investment is an invasion of their sovereignty might well study the history of infrastructure(the basic structural foundations of a society)in the United States. When the United States built its industrial infrastructure, it didn't have the capital to do so. And that is why America's Second Wave infrastructure—including roads, harbors, highways, ports and so on—were built with foreign investment. The English, the Germans, the Dutch and the French were investing in Britain's former colony. They financed them. Immigrant Americans built them. Guess who owns them now? The Americans. I believe the same thing would be true in places like Brazil or anywhere else for that matter. The more foreign capital you have helping you build your Third Wave infrastructure, which today is an electronic infrastructure, the better off you're going to be. That doesn't mean lying down and becoming fooled, or letting foreign corporations run uncontrolled. But it does mean recognizing how important they can be in building the energy and telecom infrastructures needed to take full advantage of the Internet. (2001年Passage 2) The writer mentioned the case of the United States to justify the policy of . [A] providing financial support overseas [B] preventing foreign capital's control [C] building industrial infrastructure [D] accepting foreign investment 此题是典型的先举例后提出观点的形式.以美国为例之后,作者提出"哪个国家利用外资多,哪个国家就将变得更富裕"的结论.由结论可以直接得出答案.正确答案为[D]选项. (三)长难句常考 考点一般集中在长难句上.这些句子的共同点就是同位语、定语和分句很多;主语和谓语之间的距离很远,还时常伴有插入成分.主要考查句子之间的指代或逻辑关系,以引申推理题、事实细节题等多种形式出现.理解长难句的要领就是先找出主干,化繁为简,然后再看各个分句或修饰成分与它的关系. Example In addition to this, there is the growing mobility of people since World War Ⅱ. As families move away from their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships, the informal flow of information is cut off, and with it the confidence that information will be available when needed and will be trustworthy and reliable. The almost unconscious flow of information about the simplest aspects of living can be cut off. Thus, things once learned subconsciously through the casual communications of the extended family must be consciously learned.(1995年Text 3) The word "it" (Line 3, Paragraph 2) most probably refers to . [A] the lack of stable communities [B] the breakdown of informal information channels [C] the increased mobility of families [D] the growing number of people moving from place to place 首先把握整个句子的主干是:the informal flow of information is cut off.前面是as引导的状语从句,their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships三个名词短语都是from的宾语.with it介词结构修饰confidence,表伴随;按照代词指代关系中的临近一致原则和上下文的含义,it应该指代它前面的信息,即"非正式的信息流通被切断"这句话.正确答案为[B]选项. (四)转折处或对比处常考 在历年考题中,转折和对比一直受到命题者的青睐.文章通过however,but,in fact,yet等逻辑词进行转折,转折后的内容常常是作者真正表达的内容.对比常用unlike,different from,until,not so much as等词语引导,考的是对比双方的属性.对转折题,考生要着重把握作者转折后的观点.对于文章中出现的将两种人或两种观点进行对比时,考生要准确把握每一种的特点,避免被张冠李戴的选项迷惑. Example 1 Few creations of big technology capture the imagination like giant dams. Perhaps it is humankind's long suffering at the mercy of flood and drought that makes the idea of forcing the waters to do our bidding so fascinating. But to be fascinated is also, sometimes, to be blind. Several giant dam projects threaten to do more harm than good. (1998年Passage 1) The third sentence of paragraph 1 implies that . [A] people would be happy if they shut their eyes to reality [B] the blind could be happier than the sighted [C] over-excited people tend to neglect vital things [D] fascination makes people lose their eyesight 该段前两句指出人们热衷建坝的事实和热衷的自然原因;第三句but话锋一转,引出作者探讨的主题.正确答案为[C]选项. Example 2 An invisible border divides those arguing for computers in the classroom on the behalf of students' career prospects and those arguing for computers in the classroom for broader reasons of radical educational reform. Very few writers on the subject have explored this distinction—indeed, contradiction—which goes to the heart of what is wrong with the campaign to put computers in the classroom.(1999年Passage 3) The author thinks the present rush to put computers in the classroom is . [A] far-reaching [B] dubiously oriented [C] self-contradictory [D] radically reformatory 作者将两种态度做了对比,指出对于计算机课堂教学,人们在观点上存在着一条无形的界限:一是以学生的就业前景为理由,另一种是以激进的教育改革为理由.因此[B]为答案. (五)因果句常考 (1)出这类题时,文章中一般都有since,for,because,as,therefore,result in,originate from这些标志词.没有标志词的就需要考生通过上下文推出二者的因果关系. Example 1 Technically, any substance other than food that alters our bodily or mental functioning is a drug. Many people mistakenly believe the term drug refers only to some sort of medicine or an illegal chemical taken by drug addicts. They don't realize that familiar substances such as alcohol and tobacco are also drugs. This is why the more neutral term substance is now used by many physicians and psychologists. The phrase "substance abuse" is often used instead of "drug abuse" to make clear that substances such as alcohol and tobacco can be just as harmfully misused as heroin and cocaine.(1997年Passage 3) "Substance abuse"(Line 5, Paragraph 1) is preferable to "drug abuse" in that. [A] substances can alter our bodily or mental functioning if illegally used [B] "drug abuse" is only related to a limited number of drugtakers [C] alcohol and tobacco are as fatal as heroin and cocaine [D] many substances other than heroin or cocaine can also be poisonous 该段最后一句用to明确表达用"物质滥用"代替"药物滥用"的目的所在,也就是原因.正确答案为[D]选项. (2)当有多种原因时,主要原因常考. Example 2 Could the bad old days of economic decline be about to return? Since OPEC agreed to supply-cuts in March, the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel, up from less than $10 last December. This near-tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock, when prices quadrupled, and 1979~1980, when they also almost tripled. Both previous shocks resulted in double-digit inflation and global economic decline. So where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time? The oil price was given another push up this week when Iraq suspended oil exports. Strengthening economic growth, at the same time as winter grips the northern hemisphere, could push the price higher still in the short term.(2002年Text 3) The main reason for the latest rise of oil price is . [A] global inflation [B] reduction in supply [C] fast growth in economy [D] Iraq's suspension of exports 文章第一、二段给出了多种原因."伊拉克暂停石油出口"、"经济快速增长"和"冬季的到来"是第二段提到的进一步推动油价上涨的原因,而第一段谈到的"石油输出国组织在3月决定减少原油供应"才是最主要的原因.正确答案为[B]选项. (六)段首段尾常考 考研阅读所选的文章均是议论文和说明文.此类文章的文体要求在首段提出观点、突出中心,因此第一段就好像是全篇文章的一个总纲,确定了文章的主要内容,而第一句话常常是一个自然段的主题句.首段首句自然就成为常考且必考的一个考点.有时一个自然段的主题句可能出现在段末,因此考点也相应转向末句. Example 1 If you intend using humor in your talk to make people smile, you must know how to identify shared experiences and problems. Your humor must be relevant to the audience and should help to show them that you are one of them or that you understand their situation and are in sympathy with their point of view. Depending on whom you are addressing, the problems will be different. If you are talking to a group of managers, you may refer to the disorganized methods of their secretaries; alternatively if you are addressing secretaries, you may want to comment on their disorganized bosses.(2002年Text 1) To make your humor work, you should . [A] take advantage of different kinds of audience [B] make fun of the disorganized people [C] address different problems to different people [D] show sympathy for your listeners 本题的答案主要集中在段首和段尾.该段首句指出,如果你想在谈话中用幽默使人发笑,你就必须知道如何辨别共同的经历和共同的问题.接着作者又对此进行了解释,即:你的幽默必须与听众有关,显示你是他们中的一员,或你理解他们的处境并赞成他们的观点.作者在第三句得出结论,即Depending on whom you are addressing, the problems will be different.(针对不同的听众,谈及不同的问题)由此可知,[C]选项恰好是对该段中心的概括,为正确答案. Example 2 ...With regard to Futurist poetry, however, the case is rather difficult, for whatever Futurist poetry may be-even admitting that the theory on which it is based may be right-it can hardly be classed as Literature. ... This, though it fulfills the laws and requirements of Futurist poetry, can hardly be classed as Literature...(2000年Passage 3) The author believes that Futurist poetry is . [A] based on reasonable principles [B] new and acceptable to ordinary people [C] indicative of a basic change in human nature [D] more of a transient phenomenon than literature 通过首段末句和末段首句的前后呼应,作者对未来派的观点和态度跃然纸上,即未来派诗歌很难被归于文学作品,只能是一种暂时的现象.正确答案为[D]选项. 此外,首段有问句出现的,该句也通常会成为命题点.命题形式是主旨题.因此见到首段的问句,应该首先考虑它是不是文章所要探讨的主要问题. Example 3 Why do so many Americans distrust what they read in their newspapers? The American Society of Newspaper Editors is trying to answer this painful question. The organization is deep into a long self-analysis known as the journalism credibility project.(2001年Passage 3) What is the passage mainly about? [A] Needs of the readers all over the world. [B] Causes of the public disappointment about newspapers. [C] Origins of the declining newspaper industry. [D] Aims of a journalism credibility project. 文章一开头就给出讨论的话题"造成公众对报纸失望的原因",接下来的内容亦围绕它展开.正确答案为[B]选项. (七)类比比喻常考 议论文和说明文在论证说明事理的时候均很抽象.为了让读者更形象地理解一些抽象的内容,文章常采用类比的手法.形象的类比不仅有助于将抽象的道理阐释清楚,更可以让读者加深印象.类比在文中有两种体现方式 ,一是明喻,即A像B一样;二是暗喻,说A是B,由于暗喻更加隐蔽,近年来命题专家越来越趋向于在暗喻内容上设问. Example If ambition is to be well regarded, the rewards of ambition—wealth, distinction, control over one's destiny—must be deemed worthy of the sacrifices made on ambition's behalf. If the tradition of ambition is to have vitality, it must be widely shared; and it especially must be highly regarded by people who are themselves admired, the educated not least among them. In an odd way, however, it is the educated who have claimed to have given up on ambition as an ideal. What is odd is that they have perhaps most benefited from ambition—if not always their own then that of their parents and grandparents. There is a heavy note of hypocrisy in this, a case of closing the barn door after the horses have escaped—with the educated themselves riding on them.(2000年Passage 5) The last sentence of the first paragraph most probably implies that it is . [A] customary of the educated to discard ambition in words [B] too late to check ambition once it has been let out [C] dishonest to deny ambition after the fulfillment of the goal [D] impractical for the educated to enjoy benefits from ambition 这里要求考生理解"马已经跑了再关上马厩的门"这一比喻句的真实含义.通过上文的内容可知,此句用来比喻"那些受过良好教育的人从雄心中收益匪浅,但是他们却声称要放弃以雄心为理想"的虚伪行为,其中horses代表ambition,riding代表ambition带来的好处.正确答案为[C]选项. (八)复指处常考 考点是复指代词或与复指副词作用相同的词.1996以前此类题目大多是直接问考生文章某句中的it或that指代什么.近几年此类题目的问法开始转向隐蔽.考生在遇到此类题时应该记住,题目的答案所在位置必定在复指词的上文中.因此,只需返回原文,在复指词上方扫描即可找到正确答案. Example For a long period of time and in many parts of the country, a traveler was a welcome break in an otherwise dull existence. Dullness and loneliness were common problems of the families who generally lived distant from one another. Strangers and travelers were welcome sources of diversion, and brought news of the outside world. The harsh realities of the frontier also shaped this tradition of hospitality. Someone traveling alone, if hungry, injured, or ill, often had nowhere to turn except to the nearest cabin or settlement. It was not a matter of choice for the traveler or merely a charitable impulse on the part of the settlers. It reflected the harshness of daily life: if you didn't take in the stranger and take care of him, there was no one else who would. And someday, remember, you might be in the same situation.(1997年Passage 2) Families in frontier settlements used to entertain strangers . [A] to improve their hard life [B] in view of their long-distance travel [C] to add some flavor to their own daily life [D] out of a charitable impulse this指代的是上文提到的"陌生人和旅行者很受欢迎.他们带来了娱乐消遣,还带来了外面世界的消息",因此边远地区的家庭款待旅游者的原因就是[C]选项"为自己的日常生活增添情趣". 五、阅读技巧 (一)阅读时采用何种顺序 (1)从面到点,先通读文章后看题,不清楚再回头去读有关段落.优点:一开始就对文章有一个总的概念和印象.缺点:速度慢,读起来没有重点,做题时对文章细节记不清楚. (2)从点到面,先看问题后浏览文章,带着问题的记忆去文章中找答案.优点:针对性强、速度快,无关的内容可以省略不读,与问题很可能有关的内容则可重点标出.缺点:开始时没有对文章的整体把握. (3)点面交叉,读一层意思做数道题,阅读和做题交叉进行.优点:速度适中,比较有针对性,对刚读完的内容印象深.因为全文最重要的部分在首段和各段首句,用这种方法也可以对文章的轮廓有初步的了解. 总结:任何方法都不是绝对的,考生可根据自己的个性与思维习惯以及具体的题目情况灵活处理.像段落主旨题、词义/句意题、事实细节题这些局部问题可以采用从点到面的方法,而主旨题、作者态度/观点题、引申推理题因为就全文提问或考上下文逻辑关系则需要从面到点.然而命题者出于对难易平衡的考虑,基本上会保证每篇都有一道至两道全局性问题.所以考生可以考虑点面交叉的方法. (二)初读文章时哪些信息可以不读 (1)有关职务、头衔、社会地位等补充性说明; (2)句中破折号后提供的旁支信息; (3)复杂的难句中除了主、谓、宾以外的其他辅助信息(除非与解题有关); (4)例子、对名人言论的引用的具体内容可以先不读,而只读前面的观点或总结句. (三)可以读哪些信息 (1)读题干.细心审题是一个重要环节,题干中包含解题的关键信息.它们能够帮助考生在浏览文章时迅速选定"精读内容"进行集中消化、整理,同时舍弃与题目无关的信息,排除干扰,从而减少阅读量和时间,提高解题的正确性. (2)读选项.因为命题要求选项部分的语言难度要低于文章语言的难度,所以读懂选项的语言常常会帮助考生正确理解文章的内容. (3)读文章的写作大纲.先要问自己三个问题:①本文最重要的事物或观点是什么?②作者谈的是主题的哪个或哪些方面?③作者在这方面想说些什么?阅读要用眼更要用脑去判断哪些是重要信息,还要在脑子里加工、整理,从而得出全文的提纲. (4)读主题句.每个段落都有一个基本点,加在一起烘托出文章的中心思想.各段的基本点常常通过段落主题句表示.主题句的位置是不固定的,可以在开始也可以在结尾,有时也不出现,需要考生自己提炼.主题句与其他句子的区别是它们的概括性更强,比较笼统、抽象. (5)读关键词.注意文章中出现频率最高的词和短语.它们有时是相同的重复,有时以不同的形式出现,但是归根结底都是指同一事物或事情,因些就很可能是本篇短文的中心或关键问题或事物.关键词和词组能够使句与句、段与段之间的关系更加清楚,提供了要点之间的"桥梁",给读者指明了"路子",是贯穿全文的线索. 考生在浏览文章时抓住、抓准这些关键信息,就可以迅速理解文章的主要内容、缩短解题时间. Example The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating under competitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers. In the American economy, this mechanism is provided by a price system, a process in which prices rise and fall in response to relative demands of consumers and supplies offered by seller-producers. If the product is in short supply relative to the demand, the price will be bid up and some consumers will be eliminated from the market. If, on the other hand, producing more of a commodity results in reducing its cost, this will tend to increase the supply offered by seller-producers, which in turn will lower the price and permit more consumers to buy the product. Thus, price is the regulating mechanism in the American economic system. The important factor in a private-enterprise economy is that individual are allowed to own productive resources (private property), and they are permitted to hire labor, gain control over natural resources, and produce goods and services for sale at a profit. In the American economy, the concept of private property embraces not only the ownership of productive resources but also certain rights, including the right to determine the price of a product or to make a free contract with another private individual. 这篇文章中的关键短语是American economic system,在文中多次反复出现,刚好它就是全文的写作对象.抓住了这个关键信息再加上"路标"词,文章的结构一目了然. 文章首句提出了含有写作对象的主题,即美国经济体制的特点是通过私有企业和市场导向起调节作用.末句thus后面是对主题的进一步阐释,分析和指出消费者的需求、企业家对最大利润的追求和个人对收入取得最大收益的渴望,共同决定着生产什么以及如何使用资源进行生产.第二段说明市场导向型经济的重要特点之一是价格机制.第三段说明私营经济的性质和特点是财产私有和同时拥有相关权利. (6)读"路标"词.在阅读理解中有部分"虚词"比"实词"更重要,它们就是一些表示作者思路的过渡词、短语或句子,有利于作者思想的衔接和转折.抓住它们,考生就能够对全文的结构一目了然,就不会出现"词都认识,就是不知道全文在讲什么"的情况.它们就是在阅读行进过程中起指示作用的"路标",随时提醒考生将要读到什么. "路标"词按照功能可以分为: ①前进型.这一类词和词组起的是顺接、递进作用,指示读者继续往下看,其前后可能存在并列、递进、因果、解释等关系,往往接下来的可能是作者要强调的重要内容. 如:and, also, more, moreover, more than that, furthermore, likewise, equally important, first, second, in addition to, thus, so, therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result 等. ②转弯型.这一类标志着前后两个句子或段落之间的转折或对比关系,读者要敏感地意识到后面出现的是与前面截然不同的事物或观点,从而对作者的思想进行预测. 如:but, yet, while, however, nevertheless, although, though, otherwise, despite, instead, on the contrary, in contrast, notwithstanding等. ③终点型.这一类标志着下面的内容是对前面的概括和总结. 如:to conclude, to sum up, in sum, in conclusion, in short, in brief, on the whole等. ④其他.表示空间位置(near, far, beside, next to, above, on the side of, across, behind)、目的(for this purpose, so that, in order to)、强调(indeed, in fact, surely, certainly, to be sure, I am certain)、举例(for example, for instance, in particular)、条件(in that case, that being so, in these circumstance, if, unless)等. 以上都是关于阅读理解的一些基本知识和技能的总体介绍,但是不能够光靠这些就可以提高阅读能力.冰冻三尺非一日之寒,阅读水平的提高,更多地要靠考生在实际阅读的积累中去体会和揣摩.因此希望考生在积极备考中务必将历年真题做熟、做精,深刻体会阅读理解的各个部分,从而产生质的飞跃. 第三部分阅读理解B部分命题的特点和规律 一、阅读理解B部分总体分析 (一)命题的基本指导思想 根据2006年《英语考试大纲》修订部分的内容,阅读理解B部分现有三种备选题型(包括2005年增加的选择搭配新题型).每次考试从这三种备选题型中选择一种进行考查. 备选题型有: 1.一篇总长度为500~600词的文章,其中有5段空白,文章后有6~7段文字.要求考生根据文章内容从这6~7段文字中选择能分别放进文章中5个空白处的5段. 2.在一篇长度约500~600词的文章中,各段落的原有顺序已被打乱.要求考生根据文章内容和结构将所列段落(7~8个)重新排序,其中2~3个段落在文章中的位置已给出. 3.在一篇长度约500词的文章前或后有6~7段文字或6~7个概括句或小标题.这些文字或标题分别是对文章中某一部分的概括、阐述或举例.要求考生根据文章内容,从这6~7个选项中选出最恰当的5段文字或5个标题填入文章的空白处. (二)试题特点 阅读理解B部分试题主要考查考生对连贯性、一致性、逻辑性等语篇、语段整体性特征以及文章结构的理解,即要求考生在理解全文的基础上把握文章的整体和微观结构.考生既要理解和掌握文章总体结构和写作思路,又要弄清上下文之间的逻辑关系. 这一新题型的增设,使文章长度从传统阅读理解中的400词左右增加到500~600词,大大增加了阅读的总量.这就要求考生在提高阅读速度的同时,还要能够准确的猎取文章的具体信息,并概括出文章的主旨要义,尤其是要掌握作者的写作意图、观点,区分出论点和论据,并能把握文章的写作结构和脉络层次.新题型考查重点从较低的语言基础知识即词汇和语法、句子的层次提高到段落和篇章这些较高层次的语言知识上来.因此,考生不仅需要了解文章的主干内容还要把握文章结构上的逻辑关系和整体布局,从而准确无误地将选项部分和文章某个部分一一对应,并可以与空白处的上下文有机地衔接起来. 新题型更加突出了阅读与写作之间的密切关系,因为在英语文章的写作过程中有其表达上的语言规律和篇章结构上的层次安排,所以,如果在进行英文写作时可以做到主题突出、段落层次鲜明、行文自然流畅、衔接手法多样、文字连贯,在做此类阅读新题型时必然有所裨益. (三)文章结构特点 要想准确迅速地解答阅读新题型,我们必须对英文文章的写作思路了然于心,了解并学习英语文章的篇章结构知识,因为他们反映了新题型的出题原则.常见的英语篇章结构包括: 1.问题型:提出问题—分析问题—解决问题 这类文章的基本模式是:文章通常以某种现象或话题开篇,该现象或者话题可能涉及社会生活、文化教育等各个领域.接着,针对此现象或话题展开讨论分析,找出其存在或产生的根源从而得到解决问题的办法. 解答这一类型的文章,考生关键要抓住发现问题—分析问题—解决问题这条主线. 2.议论型:提出论点—列举论据—得出结论 这一类型的文章与我们较为熟悉的议论文有很多共同之处,与问题型文章也不乏相似的地方.所以考生解答起来应该颇为容易.其基本模式是:在文章开始,作者列出自己的观点,接下来用所掌握的论据对此观点加以论证,最后得出结论.阅读这类文章,考生只要细心掌握哪些是论点,哪些是论据,结论又是什么即可. 3.立论/驳论型:提出观点—表示赞同—论证观点 提出观点—发表异议—驳斥观点—建立观点—论证观点 这类文章虽然与前两类文章有很多共同之处,但相比较而言,颇为复杂,同时也是考试中出现可能性较大的一种.文章的基本模式是:在文章开始提出一种时下比较流行的观点或者现象,接着作者阐述自己对此现象或者观点的看法(也可能会涉及到大众的舆论).在阐述自己看法的同时,作者会表明自己的态度,或赞成或反对.如果作者持赞成态度,就直接对它加以论证;如果持反对态度的话,则还要提出自己的观点,并给出充分论据证明.遇到这一类型的文章时,考生首要的任务就是通观全文,弄清楚其中哪个是作者的观点,哪个是作者要驳斥的观点,每个观点都有哪些论据作为支撑就基本完成了.由于这里面大多有明显的转折意思,考生可以去找一些提示语,比如:However/But/Nevertheless/As a matter of fact.这些词语常常可以作为作者观点和其他观点的分水岭. 4.因果型:结果/现象—原因/成因 这一类型的文章接近于说明文.文章大多以一种现象或者一种结果开篇,然后进一步探讨导致这种现象或结果的原因或成因.(文章大多围绕社会生活,文化教育等领域展开) 了解新题型所考查的要点,在阅读文章时有意识地加强对文章写作思路和结构组织安排的理解,对迅速增强此类新题型的应对能力还是非常有帮助的.因此考生可以在备考阶段选择文章,勾划掉几个重要句子,自己进行练习. (四)解题线索 1. 主题句 一篇英语文章总体有个核心的观点或主题,每个段落又有其分主题,而文章其他部分都是通过举例、引用、列数字等说明或论证手段来详细阐释主题.因此,在解题时,关键要学会抓住主题或论点.或者根据主题或论点,选择相应的实例或引用的话语,或者根据所给的实例、引用的话语或数字,来总结归纳出与之相关的主题要点,从而选择相对应的论点或主题句.无论空格在何处,都要采取就近原则,通过空格上下文的信息线索找出主题. 2. 关联词/短语 考生应熟悉英语文章中起到启承转合作用的关联词和短语,以便尽快了解文章的写作思路和整体结构,为迅速找出正确答案打好基础. 转折however, yet, but, anyhow, anyway, nevertheless, while, whereas,instead,instead of; 并列、递进 and, indeed,almost, even, similarly, like, besides, further, moreover, most important, in addition, furthermore, too, also, and then, again; 条件、让步if, only if, in spite of, despite, though, although, even so, even though, rather, after all, regardless; 原因、结果 because, since, as, for, due to, so, therefore, thus, hence, in that, accordingly, consequently, as a result, as a consequence, so that, to this end; 比较、对比likewise, at the same time, in the same way, in comparison, in contrast, like, as, just as, conversely, on the contrary ; 列举、举例first, second, etc. in the first place, in the second place, next, another, finally, still, namely, that is, for instance, for example, as an example, specifically, in particular; 时间关系 before,after, until, till, meanwhile. 3. 空白处的位置 空白处的位置可能在段首、段落中间、段未,但不会是文章的第一句,一般情况下也不会是最后一句.如果空格在段首,则选择的内容要么是本段主题句,要么是连接前段和本段内容起到承上启下作用的句子.如果空格出现在段中,则要联系该段的主题句解题;如果空格在段尾,则一般所选择的答案应起到一种总结归纳、下结论的作用,或者是对本段上文内容的补充说明. 4. 特征词 特征词包括:代词、数字、词义改写词、逻辑关系词等.出现代词的选项往往不能放在首句.其次要注意指代成立的条件.如:it可指代单数名词或整个句子;they或them指代复数名词;one指代单数可数名词;that指代不可数名词或句子;this指代单数名词或句子.当选项中出现数字,尤其是时间年代时,往往要注意与原文中年代的前后对应关系.选项中出现与原文同义改写的词越多的往往就是可选择项.逻辑关系词直接给出空格处与上下文的逻辑关系,有利于考生作出判断. 二、新题型具体介绍 第一种备选题型是2005年新增加的题型,即Gapped text(选择搭配题或完形填句/段题).这类题型虽然是首次应用到研究生英语考试中来,但它在英语测试中已经是比较常见的题型,主要测试考生的阅读能力.所选择的文章强调统一主题,空白处的句子或段落也都是围绕着文章的主题大意而展开的.考生要根据全文的内容和写作思路,将所给的段落准确地选择到其适合的位置. (一) 解题指导 题型由两个部分组成:主干部分和选项部分.主干部分是一篇有多处空格的文章,选项部分为多个句子或段落,要求考生将选项的内容与空格搭配,重新填入并使文章内容及结构完整.该题型中文章的长度和选项的数量在不同类型考试中是不同的,而在研究生入学考试中,这篇阅读文章原文总长度约为500~600词,其中有5段空白处,文章后有6~7段文字,考生根据自己对文章的理解从中选择能分别放回文章中5个空白处的5个选择答案. (二) 解题步骤 (1)先通读全文主干部分要点,了解文章内容大意及各段落之间的逻辑关系,弄清楚主干内容和结构上的关系和布局.可采用浏览式阅读法阅读全文要点词句、首尾段、每段首句以及独立成段的句子和文章中带转折词的句子等.在空白处考生可预测将要读到的内容. (2)浏览各选项的内容,如果选项较长,可以将其内容简要地概括出来,写在旁边.其中的难词生词一时还不能确定其含义可以直接保留其英语.这样既可以避免每次做题时都将所有选项的全部内容再看一遍,也可以迅速知道每个选项的主要意思. (3)接着根据各个空白处所在的位置,结合上下文内容,分辨出选项部分从结构和内容上看属于文章哪个部分,并可以与空白处的上下文有机地衔接起来.仔细研读文章中空白处的上下文,注意上下文中的某些语法、词汇、标点特征虽然会给出暗示,但考生应记住不能过分关注具体的细节,而要着眼于全文,通过文章内容线索、结构线索、逻辑线索(如时间、地点、因果关系、从属关系等)找出正确答案.注意两点:一是答题可以不按顺序,先做容易的,在此基础上再去攻克难的;二是不要留下空格不选,如果实在不知道答案可以先假设一个. (4)然后用代入法,检查答案是否合理.将所有选择答案放回空白处,通读全文,检查文章内容上是否语义连贯合理、紧扣主题,语篇结构上是否通顺连贯、具有一致性、合乎逻辑,写作思路是否清晰明了,格式以及用语是否恰当贴切,从而判断选择的答案是否基本正确.如果有时间的话,考生最后应记住检查一下没有入选的多余的句子或段落是否真的不适合填入任何一个空格. (三)大纲样题分析(Sample 1)见2001年真题分析 第二种备选题是排序题,要求考生将所给的一组段落排序,使其组成一篇条理清晰,内容连贯的文章.这就需要考生在阅读各段时把握它们的中心思想,并将各段的大意整合,理清它们之间的逻辑顺序. (一)解题指导 先通观全文,勿在细枝末节上浪费时间;留意体现逻辑关系的特征词,例如first, finally, of course, however 等;由于这类考题没有多余选项,所以考生要从最有把握的入手,再对其他几项仔细推敲,确定最佳答案. (二)解题步骤 (1)迅速浏览每个段落,重点放在首尾两句,概括出每个段落的大意. (2)仔细阅读已经给出的首尾两段,推测文章的逻辑关系,确定文章结构类型. (3)按照已推测出的逻辑关系将所给段落排序 (4)通读全文,检查段落排列是否合理 (三)大纲样题分析(Sample 2)见2002年真题分析 第三种备选题型实际上包含两种形式:根据标题选内容,或者根据内容选标题.这一题型主要考查考生区分论点、论据,把握论点论据一致性的能力.要求考生理解各个论点/观点的重点和含义,并能找出与论点一致的论据. 下面就两种类型的题目分别进行分析: 信息搭配之根据标题选内容题型(匹配论据). (一)解题指导 这类型的试题一般以议论文的形式出现,考查考生对论点论据的一致性的把握.试题要求考生在理解文章内容的基础上,准确把握文章中各个论点的含义和侧重点,然后从所给选项中选出支持这些论点的相应论据. 这种题型将论据从文章中剥离出来,要求考生将它们还原,与文中的论点相匹配,因此考生需要熟悉常用的论证方法. (1)例证法:举出实际而有代表性的事例来说明事物,把比较抽象、复杂的事物(或事理)说明得更加具体而明晰,从而使文章通俗易懂,具有说服力.常见的有典型举例法和列举法两种.前者用典型、具体的事例来说明一个观点.后者用多个细节对主题思想进行说明. (2)因果论证法:通过分析事物发展的原因和结果来阐释主题.可以是先因后果也可以是先果后因. (4)比较法:用熟知的事物跟要说明的对象做比较,帮助读者理解该事物的特征.针对不同事物之间的共同点或不同点进行阐述.可以进行整体的比较,也可以逐项比较.比较类别有:一﹑同类事物的比较;二﹑不同事物的比较;三﹑同一事物本身先后情况的比较. (5)分类法:对于复杂的事物,可以根据它们的性质、成因、关系、功用等来进行分类. (6)比喻论证法:为了把复杂的事物和抽象的事理说得具体、浅显、生动,往往须用一个事物来说明另一个事物. (7)诠释法:一种详细解释概念的方法,通常在定义之后,利用诠释去补充定义之不足,使读者对事物既有概括性认识,又有具体性了解. (8)引证法:引用一些有关资料、名言、研究成果等来充分说明要说的内容,帮助读者更深入了解事物. (二)解题技巧以及应该注意的问题 (1)缩小范围,划定重点.这类题型的阅读量包括文章和选项两部分,信息量特别大.如果考生分不清侧重点,会浪费很多的时间和精力.因此考生要先找出重点,即首段尾段,首句尾句,以及文章中的黑体字等. (2)寻找同义或相似词汇.既然选项是为论点提供论据的,那么其内容必定和文章给出的各个分论点存在逻辑关系,如:并列关系,扩展关系,补充关系等.无论它们是哪种关系必定有很多共同之处.而意义上的相近很容易带来同义词以及类似句型的运用.考生不妨从这里入手.这种词义或词汇的变换有以下几种形式: 同义词:pay more attention—focus on 词性转换: be brief—brevity is the best 句型转换:the casual friendliness of Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial——the tradition of hospitality to strangers tends to be superficial and artificial 此外,也应留意数字、地点以及其他特殊的专有名词. (3)目的明确,要获取与主旨相关的主要信息.切忌在细枝末节上耽搁全面阅读.在大纲样题中可以发现,有些以黑体字形式出现的小标题,很容易被考生误解为分论点.事实上,这些小标题并不能等同于分论点或者是总结句,他们大多被作者设置用来引起读者的注意,或者突出文章的某一个方面.因此,在答题的时候,不能匆匆忙忙地下结论,正确的做法是结合正文去理解小标题的真正含义和所指. (4)仔细辨别选项.有相似选项的,一定要区分异同之处,切不可急于求成,抓住一两个相同词汇就匆忙做出答案. (5)合理分配时间.考生应该在下面解题步骤中第二三步上多用些时间和精力,第一步和第四步依个人情况而定. (三)解题步骤 (1)通读全文.完成此类题型的第一步就是通读全文.考生在第一次阅读的时候无需过于关注文章的细枝末节,只要迅速浏览一下,争取对文章有个大概了解.为了节省时间,考生可以把重点放在首段和尾段,以及个个段落的首句和尾句,从常理上讲,文章的大意和段落大意即主题应该在这两部分有充分的提示.在阅读过程中,尤其要注意文章中的黑体字部分,这样在头脑中就可以形成对作者重点强调内容的一个初步印象 为了防止在阅读过程中遗忘,考生可以用简单的词语对各个分论点进行概括总结. (2)细读选项.此类题型大多是从六或七个选项中选出五个正确答案.因此,每个选项都不能忽视.考生应该注意比较各个选项尤其是相似选项的异同之处.必要的时候,考生可以根据自己的理解在重点处做出标记. (3)再阅读.这里所说的再阅读指的是对文章的第二次阅读,并在这次阅读的过程中结合文章和选项做出答案.考生可以根据头脑中对文章和选项的初步了解和自己的笔记,给要填充的文章部分和选项的关系作出一个假定的模式,将选项按这一模式放回到文章中.因为各个分论点之间大多是并列关系,这时候就可以锁定某一个具体的分论点,着重阅读与此分论点相关的解释和说明.既然选项内容是用来证明或者阐释分论点的,那么它与文章中已经给出的解释和说明部分在内容上和意义上应该具有很大的一致性,考生可以凭此确定答案选项. (4)检查修正.不管时间充裕与否,考生都应该在做出答案后抓紧时间检查一遍.也就是对全文进行第三次阅读.这一次阅读考生可以只将注意力放在选项和与选项相关的内容部分,检查一下二者是否搭配得当. (四)大纲样题分析(Sample 3)见2003年真题分析 信息搭配之根据内容选标题(概括大意) (一)解题指导 该类型的试题一般以议论文的形式出现,考查的是考生对于文章各个段落的主旨的把握,即总结归纳段落大意的能力.试题要求考生阅读一篇500字左右的文章,该文章由若干段落组成.选项是对各个段落主旨的概括,而且选项数量通常多于段落数量.考生在宏观理解各个段落的基础上,为其选出合适的选项,相当于为各个段落选出小标题. (二)解题步骤 (1)阅读选项.这类题型的选项通常是6—7个以小标题形式出现的简短的句子,尽管有一两个干扰项,但是不会浪费考生过多的时间和精力.考生首先浏览一下各个选项,便可以初步推测出文章的大概内容,了解到文章主要描述的对象或者主要谈论的话题.而且这些选项句子简短,也方便考生记忆.必要时,考生可以做些笔记,略去修饰词语记下关键词汇,诸如疑问词,动词,名词等. (2)段落阅读.在步骤一中,考生已经初步推测出了文章的内容,现在在这一基础上迅速地通读全文,确定文章的话题和主旨.因为考试时间有限,所以不考的段落可以略去不看.对于所考段落的阅读应异常仔细认真,切忌瞻前顾后,因为这种题型侧重考查考生总结各个段落中心大意的能力,与上下文并没有太多关联,考生可以逐段完成.在阅读各个段落时,应注意不要抓住某一段落逐字逐句的分析阅读,以勉浪费时间.正确的做法是先看首尾两句.英文写作的主要方法有两种,一种是演绎法,即在段落或文章的开始提出主旨,接下来进行分析阐释.另一种是归纳法,基本结构是,先给出一系列的现象、例子,然后分析归纳,总结出大意.而在这两种主要的写作方法中,演绎法又更受青睐.因此,考生应该重点看第一句,捎带阅读一下紧跟其后的内容,这样就能够看出首句与下文的关系,从而确定是否第一句就是段落的主旨句.如果不是,再看最后一句.如果首尾都得不出结论,再考虑阅读整个段落.找出段落大意之后,再与选项做比较,确定正确答案. (三)解题技巧以及应该注意的问题技巧 (1)找出三个关键.三个关键的具体内容是:段落的关键部分,关键部分的关键句子,关键句子中的关键词语.找出三个关键的过程也就是缩小阅读范围,找出段落主旨的过程.英语文章中的主题部分通常由比较复杂的句子体现出来,考生在阅读时应该看句子的主干成分,以及主干成分中的关键词语. (2)辨认主题句.大量的研究发现,主题句也是有一定规律的.第一,一般疑问句不能做主题句.因为一般疑问句有肯定和否定两种答案,而主题只能有一个,所以考生遇到一般疑问句可以跳过去,把注意力转移到相关答案上.第二,举例子的句子不是主题句.一般情况下,文中的例子都是用来说明阐释文章主旨的,他们本身不能做主题.第三,特殊疑问句可能是主题句.特殊疑问句,尤其是How,What,Why等几个特殊疑问词引导的特殊疑问句作为主题句有很大的可能性.如果段落中出现这样的句子,其他内容大多是围绕这个问题的回答或者评论. (3)熟悉几种句型.第一,递进关系.在阅读包含not only,but also这类连词的句子时,重点放在but also 后面.第二,让步、转折关系.考生在阅读含有表让步(如even if,although, despite that)的词的句子时,应该把注意力放在主句上;而含有表转折关系的连词(如however,but)的词的句子时,则注意力放在转折之后的部分.第三,宾语从句.在宾语从句中,表达观点和态度的从句往往是重点. (4)重点词汇.在任何一个段落或者一篇文章中,反复出现的词汇都是重点词汇,应该予以重视.除了出现频率较多的词汇之外,以特殊形式出现的词汇,诸如黑体字,斜体字,括号里,引号里的字也不容忽视. 其他应该注意的问题包括:(1)个个突破.考生要明确考查目标,这类题型考查的是归纳总结能力,并非逻辑推理能力,所以重点应该放在各个小的考查点上,不要反复阅读全文. (2)顺序问题.先将有把握的选项填好,不要在拿不准的地方浪费时间. (3)避免重复,转移为佳.选项不会是对原文的简单重复,大多是对原文的转译.考生应该避开反复的简单重复原文的选项. (四)大纲样题分析(Sample 4) Directions: You are going to read a list of headings and a text about plagiarism in the academic community. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-F for each numbered paragraph (41-45). The first and last paragraphs of the text are not numbered. There is one extra heading which you do not need to use. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points) [A] What to do as a student? [B] Various definitions of plagiarism [C] Ideas should always be sourced [D] Ignorance can be forgiven [E] Plagiarism is equivalent to theft [F] The consequences of plagiarism Scholars, writers and teachers in the modern academic community have strong feelings about acknowledging the use of another person's ideas. In the English-speaking world, the term plagiarism is used to label the practice of not giving credit for the source of one's ideas. Simply stated, plagiarism is "the wrongful appropriation or purloinning, and publication as one's own of the ideas, or the expression of ideas of another." 41. The penalties for plagiarism vary from situation to situation. In many universities, the punishment may range from failure in a particular course to expulsion from the university. In the literary world, where writers are protected from plagiarism by international copyright laws, the penalty may range from a small fine to imprisonment and a ruined career. Protection of scholars and writers, through the copyright laws and through the social pressures of the academic and literary communities, is a relatively recent concept. Such social pressures and copyright laws require writers to give scrupulous attention to documentation of their sources. 42. Students, as inexperienced scholars themselves, must avoid various types of plagiarism by being self-critical in their use of other scholars' ideas and by giving appropriate credit for the source of borrowed ideas and words, otherwise dire consequences may occur. There are at least three classifications of plagiarism as it is revealed in students' inexactness in identifying sources properly. They are plagiarism by accident, by ignorance, and by intention. 43. Plagiarism by accident, or oversight, sometimes is the result of the writer's inability to decide or remember where the idea came from. He may have read it long ago, heard it in a lecture since forgotten, or acquired it second-hand or third-hand from discussions with colleagues. He may also have difficulty in deciding whether the idea is such common knowledge that no reference to the original source is needed. Although this type of plagiarism must be guarded against, it is the least serious and, if lessons learned, can be exempt from being severely punished. 44. Plagiarism through ignorance is simply a way of saying that inexperienced writers often do not know how or when to acknowledge their sources. The techniques for documentation-note-taking, quoting, footnoting, listing bibliography—are easily learned and can prevent the writer from making unknowing mistakes or omissions in his references. Although 'there is no copyright in news, or in ideas, only in the expression of them,' the writer cannot plead ignorance when his sources for ideas are challenged. 45. The most serious kind of academic thievery is plagiarism by intention. The writer, limited by his laziness and dullness, copies the thoughts and language of others and claims them for his own. He not only steals, he tries to deceive the reader into believing the ideas are original. Such words as immoral, dishonest, offensive, and despicable are used to describe the practice of plagiarism by intention. The opposite of plagiarism is acknowledgement. All mature and trustworthy writers make use of the ideas of others but they are careful to acknowledge their indebtedness to their sources. Students, as developing scholars, writers, teachers, and professional leaders, should recognize and assume their responsibility to document all sources from which language and thoughts are borrowed. Other members of the profession will not only respect the scholarship, they will admire the humility and honesty. 一、文章总体分析 本文是关于学术抄袭的说明文.该文章层次分明,先介绍什么是抄袭,包括给它下定义;接着说明对抄袭的惩罚,以及学生抄袭的三种类型;最后指出学术界人士应该避免抄袭. 第一段:给抄袭下定义. 第二段:介绍对抄袭的不同处罚. 第三至六段:用分类法说明学生抄袭的三种情况. 第七段:指出学术界人士应该尊重知识,避免抄袭. 二、试题具体分析 (一)迅速阅读选项,了解选项及文章大意. 这种题型的选项一般置于文章前面,表达简洁明了,容易理解.迅速浏览一下其大意后,可以推测出该文章的主要话题是抄袭.(选项翻译见全文翻译) (二) 阅读所考段落,概括段落大意 接下来的主要工作是概括所考查段落的主旨,可通过寻找段落主题句完成. 第一段给学术抄袭下定义. (1)第41题所在段落即第二段说明了抄袭在不同情况下所受到的处罚.段首句是主题句.段中出现了penalty,punishment,fine,imprisonment,a ruined career等关键词表明了关于惩罚的各种形式.[F]项中consequences(后果)虽然是个中性词,但它可以概括所有的处罚类型,此外没有更合适的选项. (2)第三段的首句指出,学生必须严格要求自己,注明借用观点或者词语的出处,以避免各种形式的抄袭.这显然是[A]项概括的内容.但这里考生匆忙之中也可能会选择[B]项,因为该段的末尾作者提到了抄袭的三种形式,即by accident, by ignorance, and by intention(偶然抄袭,无知抄袭,有意抄袭).但是因为该段只是提到这三种抄袭形式,对它们做出确切完整的定义和分析的内容出现在下面三段中,因此[B]项放在这里并不恰当. (3)第四段解释了造成了偶然抄袭的原因.该段前面部分用两个he may... 平行结构的句子说明了抄袭者抄袭的种种原因.考生应该注意的是这段段尾有一个表示让步转折关系的连词although,转折后的内容才是作者真正想表达的.最后一句作者指出,如果吸取教训,这类抄袭行为可以免受严重的惩罚.只有[D]项概括了这句话的内容.其中can be forgiven对应原文中的can be exempt from being severely punished. (4)第五段作者主要讨论的是无知抄袭,以及如何避免此类行为.同样这一段落也以一个转折关系的句子结尾.同理,该句才是段落主题句.它提到,尽管除了信息、观点的表达之外,信息和观点本身并没有版权可言,但是当观点来源受到置疑时,作者仍无法为自己的无知辩护.换言之,也就是说仍应该注意观点的来源.选项为[C].该段虽然出现了ignorance一词,但不能因此就选择[D]项.因为整个段落强调的是应该学会标注引用的来源.由此可见,考生不能因为出现个别词语而做出判断,而应该以各段主旨为依据. (5)第六段中作者换用thievery,steal,deceive等多个表示盗窃的词语来说明抄袭这一行径,而且段落开始的时候,有这样一句话:最严重的学术盗窃是有意抄袭.因此[E]项最能概括这一段的中心内容. 三、全文翻译 现代学术界的学者、作家和教师对于承认引用另外一人的观点反应强烈.在讲英语的国家中,抄袭一词被用来指那些不指明所引用观点的来源的行为.简言之,抄袭就是不道德地剽窃或盗用他人想法或者想法的表达,并将其据为己有公之于众的行径. 抄袭的后果([F]) 对抄袭的惩罚视情形严重而定.在许多大学,轻则某一门课程不及格,重则被学校开除学籍.在有国际版权法保护作家不受版权侵犯的文艺界,处罚小至小笔数额的罚款,大到监禁,甚至整个事业都会付诸东流.目前,通过版权法和来自学术界、文艺界的社会压力保护学者和作家是一个相当新的概念.这些社会压力和版权法要求作者在引用他人的原始文献资料时应尤为谨慎. 作为学生该怎么做?([A]) 学生,作为毫无经验的学者,在引用其他学者的观点时应该严格要求自己,注明借用观点或者词语的出处,以避免各种形式的抄袭,否则就会产生极其严重的后果.在学生没有准确确认资料来源的情况中暴露出来的抄袭至少可以分为以下三种形式:偶然抄袭,无知抄袭和有意抄袭. 无知可以被谅解([D]) 出于偶然或疏忽的抄袭,有时候是作者对于观点的来源不能确定或记忆的结果.这些观点,作者可能是在很久以前读到的,也可能是在某个已经忘记的讲座中听到的,或者是在和同行讨论中获得的二手的或者三手的资料.他也许很难界定此观点是否已经普及到不需要标明任何原始来源的程度.尽管这类抄袭也必须防范,但它是程度最轻的,如果吸取教训,可以免除严重的惩罚. 观点总是应该标明出处([C]) 无知抄袭简单地说是指缺乏经验的作者常常不知道该如何标注,何时标注自己引文的来源.一些技巧如资料笔记、引文、脚注、参考书目列表等,学起来是很容易,而且可以防止作者在参考中因为无知而犯错误.尽管除了信息、观点的表达之外,信息和观点本身并没有版权可言,但是当观点来源受到置疑时,作者仍无法为自己的无知辩护. 抄袭等同于盗窃([E]) 最严重的学术盗窃是有意抄袭.由于自身的懒惰和愚钝,作者抄袭他人的观点和语言,并据为己有.这类作者不仅剽窃,而且绞尽脑汁欺骗读者相信自己所言是原始观点.人们常常用无道德、不诚实、冒犯无礼、卑鄙等词汇来形容有意抄袭这一行径. 与抄袭相对的是承认引用并对其作者表示感谢.所有考虑充分的、值得信赖的作家都会借用其他人的观点,但他们很谨慎地承认自己受惠于引文来源.学生,作为正在发展的学者、作家、教师,以及一些专业领头人,应该认识到并承担自己对借用了语言或思想的所有引文来源的责任.这样,本专业的其他成员,不仅会尊重学问,也会敬仰谦虚和诚实. 多余选项翻译: [B]关于抄袭的多个定义 (五)大纲样题分析(Sample 5)见2004年真题分析 第四部分阅读理解C部分命题的特点和规律 英译汉是硕士研究生入学英语试题阅读理解的一部分,其目的是测试考生正确理解书面英语材料的能力.《大纲》规定英译汉通常是一篇400字左右的短文,要求考生在30分钟内,在对原文准确理解的基础上,将5个划线的英语部分准确、完整、通顺地译成汉语. 翻译是一种跨语言的文化交流.作为文化的载体,不同文化的语言都具有其自身的特征.就英汉两种语言而言,英语是一种形合(hypotaxis)的语言,而汉语则是意合(parataxis)的语言.这意味着英语句子中需要靠使用连词或关联词去表示各个部分的逻辑关系,而汉语句与句之间的种种逻辑关系则"隐含"于上下文中.如:I shall be very disappointed if you do not come.(你不来我会失望的.) 英语中主句和从句需要if来连接,否则其不成为一个完整的句子.而汉语中则无须"如果"之类的词亦可表达此意,译成"如果你不来,那么我会失望的"反而令人觉得生硬别扭. 然而这并不是说,汉语中没有形合句.事实上,汉语的形合句有时会显得语气庄重,措辞严谨.就科技文体而言,形合句有利于清晰地译出原句内部所含的因果、目的、转折、选择、并列、条件、递进等关系.句子的承前启后更是离不开形合句. 在词序方面,两种语言亦不尽相同.虽然这两种语言的主谓宾的位置比较相似,然而状语、定语等等的位置有相同之处,亦有不同之处. 第一,英语的状语从句位置灵活,可以放在主句的前面或者后面,而汉语中则一般放在主句的前面.在状语的顺序上,英语一般为:方式状语+地点状语+时间状语,而汉语则是:时间状语+地点状语+方式状语. 第二,汉语的定语在大部分情况下是在被修饰词的前面,而英语的定语则可放在被修饰词之前(如形容词、名词修饰)或之后(如定语从句等修饰). 第三,英语多长句、松散句(句子中心在句首),而汉语多短句和圆周句(句子中心在句尾). 英汉两种语言还有很多方面不同,如英语中名词使用的频率比汉语中高一些,而汉语中动词使用频率较英语高,这意味着许多英语中的名词需要译成汉语中的动词才能符合汉语习惯.如: The emphasis on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.(2003年第63题) 译文:强调收集第一手资料,加上在分析过去和现在文化形态时采用跨文化视角,使得这一研究成为一门独特并且非常重要的社会科学. 句子的主语是一个含动词意义的名词构成的词组emphasis on data,为了符合中文行文习惯,它要采用名词转换成动词的译法,即应译为"强调资料(的收集)",而不是"对(收集的)资料的强调".句子中有两个过去分词结构修饰名词的形式,即data gathered first-hand 和a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis.它们若采用直译的方法也不符合汉语习惯,因此转换为带动词性质的动宾结构,即不直译为"被第一手收集的资料"和"被用来分析的跨文化视角",而意译为"收集第一手资料"和"分析…时采用跨文化视角". 此外,英汉在词的搭配能力上的区别也很大.英语动词和名词的搭配和汉语有相同的地方,但是更多的是不同.因此,要根据汉语的搭配去选择词语. 一、英译汉部分的命题基本指导思想 1命题基本指导思想和评分标准 (1)命题指导思想 《大纲》规定:英译汉试题命题的基本原则是避免内容不健康的、带有各种偏见的语言材料;试题无科学性错误;侧重运用能力的考查.英译汉部分的命题指导思想是适当降低英译汉文章的难度,以便要求考生在对文章深层次理解的同时,掌握并运用最基本的英译汉技巧. (2)评分标准 研究生入学考试英译汉的标准,一是"忠于原文",二是"通顺".所谓"忠于原文",就是说译文要准确地表达原文的内容和观点,不得随意增补,不能遗漏,不能加入自己的立场观点.当然,"忠于原文"并不是要逐字逐句地机械地翻译.过分拘泥于原文反而经常造成译文的生涩难懂."通顺",则是指译文语言合乎汉语的规范和语言习惯,不要有语病、错别字,力求做到明白晓畅. 命题小组制定的评分标准主要有: 第一,如果句子译文扭曲原文意思,其得分最多不得超过1分.也就是说,如果考生译文和原文意思大相径庭,或与原文意思相悖,即使汉语表达得再流利,得分也不能超过1分. 第二,如果出现两种或两种以上正确译法,给分;其中一种译法错误者,酌情扣分,扣分最多不超过1分.某些考生做此部分试题的时候提供了两种或两种以上的译文.如果他提供的多种译文都正确,则给分;如果提供的译文中有一种译法错误,则酌情扣分,但是扣分不能超过1分. 第三,汉语错别字,不个别扣分,按整篇累计扣分.在不影响意思的前提下,满三个错别字扣0.5分,无0.25扣分. 2.试题材料的选取 通过对历年试题的分析可知,英译汉部分试题命制的材料主要取自社会生活、科普知识、文化教育这几个方面. 社会生活主要涉及:法律教育、欧洲电视媒体、人口爆炸、噪音、儿童教育、资料收集、大学生、城市生活、办公室、职业选择、标准化教育、心理测试、历史学家、行为科学和文化人类学. 科普方面主要有:核辐射、太阳能、电的应用、矿物燃料、电视、能源危机、智商、建筑、技术和工具革新、科学研究取得进步的原因、天文科幻、未来世界等. 文化教育方面主要涉及广义的教育、达尔文论智力、对"知识分子"的定义. 近十年英译汉部分命题的文章篇幅不长,大约400词左右,词汇量一般也没有超出大纲规定的范围.命题主要是对文章中的长难句,包含习惯用法的句子的理解及其翻译.英译汉部分的文章具有如下特点: 第一,在用词方面,往往用比较正式的词. 第二,文章内容比较抽象、句子长、成分复杂(从句多,有时一个句子中的从句竟有好几个).设置试题的句子平均长度是35词.文章中的定语从句、宾语从句、被动语态、代词指代和比较状语从句是试题命制的重点.例如,代词指代是指this,that,it,they等词的指代.在文章中,它们往往不是单纯地代表另一个简单名词,而是出现代指上文或下文的一件事、一句话等复杂的情况.比较状语从句也很少是两个事物数量、程度等具体方面的比较,取而代之的是指较为复杂的、抽象意义上的比较. 此外,此类文章的特点还体现在被动句数量非常多.这些特点给考生增添了很大难度.在翻译这类文体时,要求译成准确、简洁、符合规范的中文. 二、英译汉部分试题命制的特点 1.句子长且结构复杂、内容抽象. 主要表现在句子字数多,从句多,并且有被动句、抽象名词,给考生的理解带来困难.如: On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the other with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed. 译文:总的来说,得出这种结论是有一定把握的,但是必须具备两个条件:能够假定这个孩子对测试的态度和与他比较的其他孩子的态度相同;他也没有因为缺乏别的孩子具有的有关知识而被扣分. 这个句子由56个词组成,是一并列复合句.句子前后两部分由but连接表转折,是并列的两个分句.but之后又有两个only if引导的条件从句,其中还出现了定语从句、省略现象.句子不可谓不复杂. They are the possessions of the autonomous (self -governing) man of traditional theory, and they are essential to practices in which a person is held responsible for his conduct and given credit for his achievements.( 2002年第64题) 译文:自由和尊严(它们)是传统理论定义的自主人拥有的,是要求一个人对自己的行为负责并因其业绩而被给予肯定的必不可少的前提. 这个句子有35个词,由两个并列句组成,包含了一个定语从句、两个被动语态,许多词比较抽象,需要就文章的内容给出合适的解释,如possessions, autonomous, practices 等等. 2.文章摘自原版读物或刊物. 很多句子表意方式、语序方面体现了英语语言的习惯和特点,增加了试题的难度. 如: Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools. 译文:他们(新学派科学家们)说,科学的发展与其说源于天才伟人的真知灼识,不如说源于改进了的技术和工具等等更为普通的东西. 句子中的not so much...as是典型的英语表达方式,汉语无对等结构,所以成为解题的难点,需要考生有一定的理解能力和语言转换能力. Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its population to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable support for all, people will have to accept more "unnatural food". 译文:除非人类终于意识到要把人口减少到这样的程度,使地球能为所有人类提供足够的饮食,否则人们将不得不接受更多的"人造食品". 这种以 until或not...until连接的句子体现了英、美人的思维方式.在英汉翻译时要调整句序,才符合中文的表达习惯. 3.划线部分的理解与翻译对上下文的依赖性很强. 这样命题的目的是要求考生在读懂全文的基础上对相关部分进行翻译,这就是2002年试卷把英译汉并入阅读理解部分的原因.因此,考生在翻译过程中要把准确理解原文的意义作为重要的环节去对待.例如: To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity. 译文:批评智力测试不反映上述情况,犹如批评温度计不能测风速一样. 这个句子中it, such failure都有所指代,需要根据上下文判断具体指代何物,否则无法正确理解全句. 4.试题中的词汇一词多义现象比较多,要求考生根据句子内容确定词义后再对词义进行引申. 在翻译时如果不考虑上下文的需要,照搬词典的解释,硬译成汉语,将使译文生硬,不能准确表达原文的意义. Probably there is not one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though differing in degree, as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena. 译文:在座的诸位中,大概不会有人一整天都没有机会进行一连串复杂的思考活动.这些思考活动与科学家在探索自然现象原因时经历的思考活动,尽管复杂程度不同,但是在类型上是完全一样的. 句中的course, reason, train等词,无不有一个以上的意思,这就需要根据上下文选择正确的意项.如train在这的意思是"一串…",而不作"火车"解. 三、英译汉部分试题的解题技巧 透彻的理解是做好翻译题的前提.透彻的理解是指对作者的观点态度了解清楚.考生要把题目中的各个部分句子的相互关系搞清楚.对于较长的句子可以首先划出句子的主干,然后再看剩下的部分在句中对于主干是什么关系. 在动手翻译之前,考生应当首先把这篇四百字左右的短文当作泛读题看一遍,主要是对全文的大意、段落之间的关系有所了解.在不影响对文章主旨的理解的情况下,若有不懂的句子大可不必在意.下一步考生可以逐句地对五个划线部分的句子精读一番,争取对各个句子有准确的理解,这样才可能进行准确的翻译. 之所以强调对全文的阅读,是因为许多考生在不通读全文的情况下光读几个考题而出现理解的偏差.这样做得不到高分,因为许多句子牵涉到对上下文的整体理解,如果不通读全文就无法做到正确地理解,更谈不上正确地翻译.在理解之后再动手翻译,争取一次到位,而不要译完一半时发现理解错误后,全部推翻已译内容并重新开始翻译,这样反而耽误时间. 以下就翻译文章的具体特点,谈谈考生需要掌握的翻译技巧: 1.被动语态的翻译 在命制试题过程中,选用的文章大多是正式的文体.这类文章的特点之一是被动句很多,因为这类文章客观性很强,而被动语态是使文章客观化的手段之一.不但如此,在英语正式文体中还有其他表示被动的方法,如在名词后加-ee表示动作的承受者(如trainee, employee, addressee, payee 分别表示受训者,受雇者,收件人,收款人);形容词以 -able、-ible结尾和由过去分词转换的形容词,大多含有被动意义,如:visible stars(看得见的星星),navigable rivers(可通航的海湾)等等.介词短语,过去分词短语有时也能表示被动意义. 汉语中的被动句不占优势.英文中大部分的被动句都可以译为汉语的主动句,只有在强调被动意义时才使用被动句.但是在汉语的主动句中,有的在逻辑上是被动句,如:"文章写完了".在这样的句子中,主语不是谓语的动作施行者,而是承受者.汉译时应该灵活采取相应的形式.此外,汉语本身特有一些表示被动的语言手段可以加以利用.为了使译文符合汉语习惯,翻译被动句时,常常可以用以下几种方法: (1)被动句的主语仍译为主动句的主语. The car was severely damaged beyond any means of repair while the driver was safe and sound. 译文:汽车损坏严重,已无法修理,而驾车者却安然无恙. The discovery is highly appreciated in the circle of science. 译文:此项发现得到科学界的高度评价.(或:科学界对此项发现给予高度评价.) (2)将被动句译成主动句,有时外加泛指人称代词"人们","有人","大家","我们"做主语. Rubber is found to be a good isolating material. 译文:人们发现,橡胶是一种良好的绝缘材料. The area has been marked out for building more hotels. 译文:人们划出这块地区用于建造更多的旅店. (3)把by 后动作的执行者做主语,英文原句中的主语做宾语. The result of the invention of the steam engine was that human power was replaced by mechanical power. 译文:蒸汽机发明的结果是机械力代替了人力. What measures have been or are being adopted by the government to reduce air pollution? 译文:政府已经采取或正在采取哪些措施去降低空气的污染程度呢? (4)译成汉语中的无主句. 若根据上下文或特定情景,对行为主体一目了然,或者出于礼貌和婉转起见,可以采用这种译法. The amount of carbon monoxide that an engine gives off can be reduced by special devices designed to make the engine burn the fuel more efficiently. 译文:使发动机更有效地燃烧燃料而设计的特殊装置可以降低发动机一氧化碳的排放量. Additional International Standards may be added to the series in the future. 译文:将来还可能对本系列标准增加若干项国际标准. (5)改译成汉语的判断句,即带表语的主动句. 如"是由…"、"是因…"、"是在…"等等.被动语态是表示一种状态时可以译成汉语的判断句型. My first forty years were spent in Southern Europe. 译文:我的前四十年在南欧度过. These machines are operated by a worker only. 译文:这些机器只由一名工人操纵. (6)译成正常的被动句,以突出被动意义. 这不仅包括被字句,还包括汉语特有的表示被动的手段,如"受、被、叫、挨、让、给、遭、由、为、为…所…、把、加以、使"等等都可以表示被动意义. In industry, natural materials difficult to get are often replaced by plastics. 译文:在工业中,不易获得的天然材料常常被塑料代替. Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science. 译文:工具和技术本身作为根本性创新的源泉,多年来在很大程度上被历史学家和科学的思想家忽视了. Problems should be resolved in good time. 译文:问题应该及时加以解决. The Apollo Ⅻ crew reported that their spaceship was being followed by two UFOs. 译文:阿波罗十二号的宇航员曾报告说,它们的宇宙飞船正遭到两个不明飞行物的跟踪.(用"遭到") For separating iron from the impurities the iron ore must be melted. 译文:为了使铁跟杂质分离,铁矿石必须经过冶炼. 常见的被动式句型译法: It cannot be denied that...不可否认 It has been illustrated that...据说明;据图示;图中表示 It has been proved that...已经证明 It is(usually) considered that...据(通常)估计;人们(通常)认为 It is assumed that...假定 It is believed that...大家相信 It is alleged that...据称 It is demonstrated that...已经证明,文中(图中)表明 It is estimated that...据估计 It is expected that...人们希望 It is found that...据发现;人们认为 It is generally agreed/recognized that...人们通常认为/承认 It is hoped/still to be hoped that...(我们)希望/仍希望 It is mentioned that...据说 It is noticed /noted that...人们注意到/前面已经指出 It is proposed that...有人提议(指出) It is recommended that...有人推荐 It is regarded that...人们认为 It is reported that...据报道 It is said that...据说 It is stressed that...人们强调说 It is supposed that...据推测;假定 It is thought that...有人认为 It is universally accepted that...普遍认为 It is well known that...众所周知 It must be admitted that...必须承认 It should be pointed out that...必须指出 It will be seen from it that...由此可见 2.定语从句的翻译 在语法上,定语从句是对先行词的修饰语,但是从定语从句的作用来看,它还可以用作补充或说明先行词的附加语、同位语和描述语.此外,在有些英语的定语从句和主句之间还存在状语关系.一般而言,对限制性定语从句采取前置法或后置法或融合法,而对先行词加以进一步地描写、解释或叙述的非限制性定语从句采取的是前置法或后置法.较长的定语从句采取后置法,而较短的采取前置法.事实上,翻译没有定规,它需要根据汉语习惯去灵活处理. (1)前置法 译成"…的".一般针对比较短的限制性定语从句. The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并且给以精确而严谨的解释的表达方式. (2)后置法 用"这个"、"这"或重复先行词的办法去引导另起一个句子;有时省略先行词另起一句;有时灵活处理成并列分句.这种方法适合比较长的限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的翻译. They would have had to live the rest of their lives under the stigma that he had recklessly precipitated an action which wrecked the Summit Conference and conceivably could have launched a nuclear war. 译文:他们可能不得不背着一种臭名而终其余生,这个臭名就是:他曾冒然采取一项行动,这项行动破坏了首脑会晤,并且可以设想,还可能已经触发一场核战争.(较长的限制性定语从句,重复"这个臭名") It is he who received the letter that announced the death of his uncle. 译文:是他接到了那封信,说他的叔叔去世了.(限制性定语从句,后置省略先行词) I told the story to John,who told it to his brother. 译文:我把这件事情告诉了约翰,约翰又告诉了他的弟弟.(非限制性定语从句后置处理成并列分句,重复先行词"约翰") Christmas carols are loved by all who hear and sing it every year. 译文:圣诞颂歌为大家喜爱,人们每年都欣赏和演唱.(非限制性定语从句后置处理成并列分句,重复先行词"人们") World War II was, however, more complex than World War Ⅰ, which was a collision among the imperialist powers over the spoils of markets, resources and territories. 译文:第一次世界大战是帝国主义列强之间争夺市场、资源和领土的冲突,而第二次世界大战却比第一次复杂.(非限制性定语从句前置) In such an experiment the insects can be taught to fly to the ultra-violet,which for us is just darkness. 译文:在这样的实验中,能够训练昆虫飞向紫外线,而紫外线对我们来说只是一片黑暗.(非限制性定语从句后置,重复先行词) (3)融合法 融合法就是把限制性定语从句与主句融合成一句话. There are many people who want to read the book. 译文:许多人想读这本书.(融合成一句话,一般适用于There be句型) Home workers are people who have made decisions regarding their careers and life-styles. 译文:在家工作的人是按照自己的职业和生活方式做出这种决定的. 3.抽象名词的译法 科技英语中有名词化的倾向.这其中包括一些由动词变过来的动作名词和动名词,如examination,examing.这样的抽象名词本身就含有很强的动词意味,故在翻译的时候经常转译成动词.此外,还有一些是形容词加后缀 -ity,- ness, -ability构成的名词,翻译的时候可以灵活译成相应的动词、状语(从句)、分句、意合句等等. We were caught up in a discussion about the situation in Afghanistan when the professor walked into the classroom. 译文:当教授走进教室时,我们正在兴致勃勃地讨论阿富汗局势. It would be wise to handle this delicate problem with calmness and patience. 译文:冷静耐心地处理这个微妙的问题是明智的. Even an elementary knowledge of statistics is sufficient to enable the journalist to avoid misleading his readers. 译文:即使只懂得一点统计学的初步知识,也足以使记者避免报道失真.(名词词组译成状语从句) 4.正义反译和反义正译 正义反译和反义正译要求译者对一些无法直接用汉语的相同结构进行表达的语言结构和表达方式从相反的角度进行转换.英汉两种语言习惯不同,要加强修辞效果,或要更确切地表达原文的含义,翻译时如果用正面表达原文出现困难,那么不妨试着用反面表达,或将原文的反面表达改用正面表达,使译文更流畅. There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior referred to by the term than there is on how to interpret or classify them. 译文:人们对智力这个词所指的不同表现意见比较一致,而对这些表现如何解释或分类则有不同的看法.(more A than B 实质上是对B的否定,因此我们可以把B 部分用否定法译出,正义反译the term根据上下文译为"智力这个词") And the cycle continues. 译文:如此循环,永不止息.(正义反译) It cannot be too much emphasized that listening is the most important in learning English. 译文:应当特别强调,听力在英语学习中是最重要的问题.(反义正译) 类似的结构还有:cannot...enough;cannot...more;cannot...sufficient;cannot sufficiently;cannot...overcharged(以及其他由over-构成的复合词),这些结构可以译为"无论怎么…也不过分". The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention from the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users. 译文:把标准化测试作为抨击目标是错误的,因为在抨击这类测试时,批评者不考虑其弊病来自人们对测试不甚了解或使用不当. (divert attention from译成"不考虑".正义反译) The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并给予准确而严谨解释的表达方式.(nothing but 译成"只不过",反义正译) The United Nations has not, so far, justified the hopes which the people of the world set on it. 译文:迄今为止,联合国辜负了世界人民寄予的希望.(反义正译) I thus appeared to them to be quite familiar with this sort of situation, and it confirmed them in their belief that I was a thoroughly disreputable character. 译文:这样一来,在他们眼里,我就像是非常熟悉这一套的了,也使他们更加确信我是一个地地道道的坏蛋.(正义反译) To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity. 译文:批评智力测试不反映上述情况,犹如批评温度计不能够测风速一样. such failure是正面表达,但是从上下文看,是指An intelligence test does not measure character, social adjustments...,所以译成"不反映上述情况". Galileo's greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth. 译文:伽利略的最光辉的业绩在于他在1609年第一个把新发明的望远镜对准天空,以求证实行星是围绕太阳旋转,而不是围绕地球旋转.(rather than是正面表达,但是它含否定意思,应该译成"而不是") 有如下词语经常用正反、反正译法: 动词:fail, miss, lack, live up to, ignore, refuse, withhold, neglect, refrain, deny, overlook, exclude 名词:absence, failure, refusal, ignorance, neglect, exclusion 形容词:few, little, free from, far from, short of, safe from, thin, worthy of, ignorant... 副词:little, less, otherwise, too...to..., vainly 连词:more...than, unless, before, until, rather than, or 介词:without, about, except, beyond, instead of, in place of, out of 5.习惯用法的翻译 研究生入学考试中,经常出现一些习惯用法和短语.许多考生因为对此不知道或不敏感,以至对原文的理解产生偏差,甚至产生完全错误的理解,所以,牵涉到习惯用法和短语的部分考生往往失分严重. 我们有必要掌握一些经常在考研题中出现的习惯用法和短语. 现将考研题中经常出现的习惯用法归纳如下: (1)more A than B, less B than A,not so much B as/but A意思相同,用法相似,都可理解为"与其说是B,还不如说是A". 这些短语的常见意义为"比…更",如:There are more cars on the roads in summer than in winter.夏天公路上的车比冬天多.但是这个释义并不适合所有的场合.在很多情况下,这些句型中A、B表示的是不同种类的比较,而且是表示在比较的基础上的一种选择关系,应该译为"与其说…还不如说".如:Teaching can be more like guiding and assisting than forcing information into a supposedly empty head. 译文:教学与其说是把知识灌输到假定为一片空白的头脑中,还不如说是对其进行引导和帮助.(本句可理解为将"知识灌输"的行为与"引导和帮助"的行为进行对比,说明教学选择的是后一种行为.故译为"与其说…还不如说".注意译文与原文的语序相反.) It remains our view that a definition would be more likely to interfere with than to assist the competent organs of the United Nations to take quick and effective action to ensure the maintenance of peace. 译文:我们仍然认为,一项定义与其说是有助于,还不如说是有碍于联合国各个主管机构采取迅速而有效的行动确保和平. It was a curious exchange,less a debate than a quarrel between two aggressive men, each of them determined to impress the audience as more peaceful than the other. 译文:这是一次奇妙的交谈,与其说是两个好斗的人之间的一场辩论,还不如说是一次吵嘴,双方都竭力想使听众觉得自己比对方更爱和平. However, this is not so much a weakness in his work as it is the inevitable result of scholars' neglect of this period. 译文:然而,这与其说是他作品中的弱点,倒不如说是学者们忽略对这个时期的研究而造成的必然结果. (2)no more...than,not any more than表示类比,意思是"和…一样都不","不比…更". no more...than与not any more不能简单地看做more...than 的否定形式.这一结果可能是带有一定的感情色彩的否定形式,也可能是一种较特殊的类比形式. 第一种情况:表示同类否定比较,可译为"不比…更"或"都…同样不". The heart is no more intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain. 译文:心脏和胃一样无智力可言,因为它们都是由大脑控制的. The food on the ship was no better than on any other ship on which Billy had sailed. 译文:这条船上的(供应的)食品和比利工作过的其他船上的食品一样差劲. 第二种情况:表示两者的比较关系,可译为"正如…不,…也不". There is no reason they should limit how much vitamin you take, any more than they can limit how much water you drink. 译文:他们没有理由限制你服用多少维生素,正像他们不能限制你喝多少水一样.(这句话实际上是前后两部分进行比较的一种用法) No one can hold back the tide of revolution any more than a man with a broom can hold a flood that has burst the dam. 译文:任何人都无法阻挡革命洪流,正如一个人不能拿着扫帚挡住决堤的洪水一样. The archaeologists' efforts are not directed at proving the correctness of the Bible any more than belief in God can be scientifically demonstrated. 译文:考古学家的努力并不是要"验证"圣经的正确性,正如信仰上帝不能从科学上证明一样. (3)rather than很多情况下是一个表示否定的词组,译成"而不是". He rather than you is responsible for the loss. 译文:损失由他而不是你负责. Rather than a punishment or a burden, work is the opportunity to realize one's potential. 译文:工作不是惩罚,也不是负担,工作为个人潜力的发挥提供机会. (4)only too...to相当于very...to表示"非常…"、"很…". I shall be only too pleased to help him. 译文:替他帮忙我是非常高兴的. (5)cannot...too...的意思是"无论怎么也不会过分",not表示的否定也可用scarcely这样的半否定词代替,意思相似. A book may be compared to your neighbour; if it be good, it cannot last too long; if bad, you cannot get rid of it too early. 译文:一本书好比你的邻居;如果是好书,读书的时间再长也不嫌长;如果不是好书,你越早丢开它越好. One can scarcely pay too high a price for liberty. 译文:为自由人们付出多大的代价都不过分. (6)肯定句中other than 表示 different from或except,"不同于,除了";在否定句中other than相当于except"除了". Plants which refine crude ores are often located in countries other than those in which the crude ores are mined. 译文:提炼矿石的厂房通常不设在采矿石的国家,而设在其他国家. Holidays other than those in this brochure do not have free places for children. 译文:小册子上没写的节假日里小孩不免费. We missed the last bus so there was no choice other than to walk home. 译文:我们错过了最后一班公共汽车,所以除了步行回家外别无选择. (7)It is not that...but that...的意思是"这不是说,而是说",或"原因不是…,而是…". It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is a much finer apparatus and of course much more accurate in its measurement than the former. 译文:这并不是说面包师或卖肉者所用的磅秤和化学家所用的天平在构造原理或工作方式上存在差别,而是说与前者相比,后者是一种更精密得多的装置,因而在计量上必然准确得多. (8)Cannot...too"再…也不过分","应该…",参见技巧中的"正义反译和反义正译"部分. You cannot be too careful in this matter. 译文:在此事上你再仔细也不过分. We cannot estimate the value of modern science too much. 译文:对现代科学的价值再重视也不过分. (9)much less, still less 用于否定句中,表示一种追加的否定,意思为"更不用说、更不要说".类似的说法还有to say nothing of, not to speak of, not to mention, let alone,它们的意思也是"更不用说",但是肯定句和否定句都可以用. He knows little of mathematics, and still less of chemistry. 译文:他几乎不懂数学,更不用说化学了. In old China, there was hardly any machine-building industry, to say nothing of an electronic industry. 译文:在旧中国,几乎没有机器制造业,更不用说电子工业了. Some people never read a newspaper,let alone a book. 译文:有些人从未读过报纸,更不用说书本了. He is the most intelligent, not to mention handsome, people I know. 译文:他是我知道的最聪明的人之一,而且他还很英俊. (10)the last + 名词+不定式,或the last +名词+定语从句,意思是"…最不可能的,最不愿意的". You are the last person I want to see. 译文:你是我最不愿意见的人. He would be the last person to go along with the proposal. 译文:他将是最不可能同意这项提议的人. Breach of promise is the last thing that he is likely to commit. 译文:违约的事情他是绝不会干的./他决不至于干出违约的事情. (11)only to+动词"结果却…",表示出乎意料的一种结果. They don't have to pay for expensive seats at the theatre, the cinema or the opera, only to discover, perhaps, that the show is disappointing. 译文:他们不必花钱去剧院、电影院或歌剧院买价格昂贵的票,结果却发现,所演节目令人失望. I went to pay a visit to my teacher only to find that the door was locked. 译文:我去拜访老师,结果却发现大门被锁上了. (12)no...but"没有…不","任何…都". There is no man but has faults. 译文:没有人没有错误./人皆有错误. but在此是一否定关系代词,既代替前面的名词,又引出从句,而且具有否定意义,可理解为who...not, that...not, which...not.原句相当于There is no man who does not have faults. (13)would rather...than"宁愿…","与其…不如". I would rather die with my head high, with indestructible faith and profound belief in the destiny of our country, than live in humility and renounce the principles which are sacred to me. 译文:我宁愿昂着头,怀着不动摇的信念,抱着对祖国前途的真切信心而死,也不愿在屈从之下背弃神圣的原则而生.(注:would rather 在某些英语中写成had rather) (14)not nearly 相差很远,远远少于. The food supply will not increase nearly enough to match this, which means that we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and marketing food. 译文:粮食供应将远远比不上人口的增长,这意味着我们在粮食生产和购销两方面正陷入危机. (15)no less than简直是,实在是; no less... than不但…而且. It is no less than blackmail to ask such a price for a mere vase. 译文:区区一花瓶索要如此高价,简直是敲诈. There were no less than one thousand people at the meeting. 译文:到会的不少于1 000人.(强调人很多.比较There were not less than one thousand people at the meeting.到会的至少有1 000人.只说"不少于",而不强调人多人少) China insists always on the need for self-reliance, no less in economic policies than in making revolution. 译文:中国始终坚持独立自主,不但在进行革命方面,而且在经济政策方面亦如此.(注意:no less...than连接两个并列的成分,强调的重心在前面,因此汉译时被强调的部分要放在"而且"之后) (16)anything but 根本不;all but 几乎,差一点;but for、but that + 从句"要不是". Alone in a deserted house, he was so busy with his research work that he felt anything but lonely. 译文:虽然他单独一人待在这所空寂的房子里,但是他埋头于工作研究,所以一点也没有感到孤独. (anything but意思是not at all, but做介词,意为except) The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方式不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并给予准确而严谨的解释的表达方式. It was all but impossible to climb back into the boat. 译文:要再回到船上已几乎不可能了.(all but相当于nearly, almost) But for the rain we would have had a nice holiday. 译文:要不是因为下雨,我们的假日一定过得很惬意. But that you had seen me in the water, I would have drowned. 译文:要不是你看见我掉在水里,我早就淹死了. 6.否定的翻译法 英语中的否定有其特有的形式,在翻译中要特别重视被表达的意思是全部否定、部分否定、还是双重否定以及有没有否定转移的现象. (1)否定转移: The object did not move because I pushed on it. The object moved not because I pushed on it. 两句话的意思都是:该物体的移动不是因为我的推动所致.(第一句里有否定转移) We did not build institutes of technology to educate our boys for export. 译文:我们成立理工学院不是为了培养学生日后出国. (2)部分否定: 具有全体意义的词如all, every, both, always 等用于否定结构时,不表示全体否定,只表示其中一部分被否定.不能译做"一切都不…",而应当译成"并非一切…都是" All is not gold that glitters.闪光的东西并不一定是金子.(谚语) I do not like both of the books.这两本书我并不都喜欢. 7.句子结构和被分离结构的译法 英语中较长或较难的句子常常会出现结构分离现象,在翻译时注意要保持整个句子结构和被分离的结构的一体性. (1)不定式分离 带to的不定式通常是不拆开的,但偶尔也有将副词插入其中的情况,这就被称为分裂不定式.这种将to和后面的动词拆开的做法是为了避免由于这一插入的副词放在句中其它位置而产生的歧义,如下面两句意思可能会不同. ①He failed entirely to comprehend it. ②He failed to entirely comprehend it. 在①句中,entirely既可以看作是修饰failed,也可看作是修饰to comprehend,而在②句中则只能修饰comprehend了.因此不定式的分离是有特定作用的. 在复合不定式结构中也存在分离现象. The existence of the giant clouds was virtually required for the Big Bang, first put forward in the 1920s, to maintain its reign as the dominant explanation of the cosmos.(1998年第72题) 注意该句子中的to maintain its reign和前面的for the Big Band是一体的,它们构成了不定式的复合结构for... to do...,插入语first put forward in the 1920s将它从中间分离开来,翻译的时候要注意恢复它们的一体性,即"(使)大爆炸论得以保持其主导地位". (2)否定词位置不同 两句话中即使其它单词一模一样,如果否定词换了地方,句意也会有区别,如: ①I wasn't anxious to go.(我并不特别想去) ②I was anxious not to go.(我很想不去) ③I wasn't sorry to break the cup.(我对打碎了杯子不感到遗憾) ④I was sorry not to break the cup.(我很遗憾没有打碎这个杯子) 第五部分写作A部分命题的特点和规律 2005年研究生入学考试英语考试的变化之一是在写作部分增加了应用文写作,其目的在于考查考生进行一般性应用文写作、运用英语书面语言表达日常交际实际需要的能力.英语应用文指在日常工作和生活中应用的文体,其类型多样,包括信函、备忘录、摘要、报告、通知等.写好应用文,考生关键要掌握其宏观语篇结构与具体语言形式,即既要懂得每一类型应用文的格式与基本框架(先写什么,后写什么),又要得体地运用恰当的语言形式(包括具体的词汇和句型).由于平时考生对应用文的写作不太关注,另外由于其类型也变化多样,因此考生在复习阶段需全面熟悉常见应用文的基本格式,并多加练习,为应用文写作打下牢固的基础. 要写好应用文,应注意: (1)达到题目中的字数要求,研究生入学考试应用文一般字数要求为100字左右,篇幅过长或过短都不宜. (2)内容上在覆盖要求中的所有信息点的同时要注意语言的简炼,写作时可以利用提示语中的关键词,但不能完全照抄照搬原题提示. (3)书写格式要规范,根据不同内容,选择相应的写作格式. (4)尊重交际规则.根据应用文写作的对象和交际目的选择合适的语气和措辞. 一、信函型写作总述 书信是研究生应用文写作考查的重点. 1. 正文的必备结构 考研应用文不需要对书信格式进行复习,但需要注意信件正文的结构.信件正文结构要完整,必须包含以下四个方面: ① 称呼.正文第一行顶格写.称呼即写信人对收信人的称谓,它取决于写信人和收信人之间的关系.公务信函中称呼的一般形式是Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms./Miss +收信人的姓氏.当不知道收信人姓名时可称呼Dear Sir/Madam/Sirs/Mesdames,或To whom it may concern.写给关系密切的人时,用Dear或My dear加上称呼或对方名字.例如:My dear mother,Dear Mary等.也可以根据题目信息,用头衔、职位、职称、学位等再加姓氏或姓氏和名字.例如:Dear Prof. Zhang, Dear Dr. John Smith.常见的头衔(汉英对照)如下:教授Professor;博士Doctor(Dr.,Ph.D.); 医学博士Medical Doctor(M.D.); 总统或校长President;主席或董事长Chairman;副主席或副董事长Vice Chairman;副总统或副校长Vice President;首相Prime Minister; 总理Premier,省长或州长Governor;市长Mayor;参议员Senator;大使Ambassador;秘书长Secretary General;院长Director, Dean; 副院长Vice Director; 系主任Dean, Head, Chair; 馆长Chief Librarian, Curator. ②正文.正文是一封书信中最重要的部分,也是书信写作考查的重点.它和写短文类似,要分层次进行.正文可由一或多个段落组成,但其内容应包含三个部分:引言、发展和结尾部分.引言部分讲明写信目的(如:求职、申请学校和专业等)和写信背景(如:促使你写信的某件事或某个广告)、发展部分陈述相关要点,这部分相当于一篇文章的主体段落,内容应详实、具体.结尾部分可简要重申中间部分的要点或致谢、敦促收信人早日回信等.考生注意在写作题目要求中往往规定了很多内容要点,因此考生应按照要求逐段表达这些要点,文字要求简明准确、思路要求条理清晰,同时可以把每一点扩充成一段. 正文从称呼下一行开始,其格式有缩进式和齐头式两种.采用缩进式的正文每段第一行应往右缩进约四五个字母,第二行起从左面顶格写起.采用齐头式,则每一行都从左面顶格写起. ③结尾语.信的正文写完以后,应当有表致敬的结束语.结束语是写信人对收信人的一种客套称呼,它需要根据写信人与收信人之间的关系而定,最常见的有:Yours sincerely或Sincerely yours(适用于各种关系).比较正式的结束语有:(Very )Respectfully yours, Yours (very) respectfully,用于地位高的人或长辈;(Very)Truly yours, Yours (very )truly,用于不大熟悉而彼此间又需要客气的人;(Very )Faithfully yours, Yours (very) faithfully,用于对机关的正式函件.非正式的结束语有:Affectionately yours, Yours affectionately, Lovingly yours,用于最亲密的友人之间;Yours lovingly, Yours loving father用于亲密的家人之间;Lovingly, Devotedly, Your own, All my love用于情人、夫妻之间. 结束语只占一行,低于正文一二行,从信纸的中间或偏右的地方开始写.第一个词的首字母要大写,末尾用逗号. ④签名.在结束语下一二行,从信纸中间偏右的地方开始写.考卷中不要出现自己的真实姓名,一般用Li Ming代替. 2.语体 书信类应用文的写作中主要有正式与非正式的两种语体或者说是书面语体与口语语体.考生可根据书信类型、收信人身份选择合适的语体.如果是私人朋友间的书信就要用非正式体.而像写给上级的辞职信这样的公务信函就应该是正式的、礼貌的.有时,同一类型的书信也可以采用正式与非正式两种语体表达,如:邀请客人参加晚会的书信比较随便、简短;而邀请参加学术会议的书信则很正规.请看下列两封书信: Dear Zhao Xiang, My brother and I are going to have a small dancing party to celebrate the New Year at home. We are going to invite some old friends and hope you can come. The time is next Saturday, February 7, at seven o'clock in the evening. I know you have been very busy recently, but I do hope you can manage it. We are looking forward to your coming with great pleasure. Yours affectionately, Li Ming Dear Professor Zhang: I am pleased to inform you that Beijing QQ Technology Company is organizing a three day seminar entitled "Cruising the Internet Securely" in September 2005 in Beijing, as part of its continuous efforts to provide a platform for experts to meet and exchange expertise. You are cordially invited to participate in this important academic event of the city as our guest. Your round trip air ticket, accommodation and meal expenses will be subsidized. Should you be interested, please let us know at your earliest convenience. Look forward to seeing you in this conference, and to having you as an important part of this event. Sincerely, Li Ming Manager QQ Technology Co. Ltd Encl. Seminar Announcement, Timetable, Member List 从以上示例可以看出,正式体和非正式体书信虽然在本质上并没有什么区别,但在形式上是有差异的.正式体的书信不仅在语言文体上比非正式的要正规,而且其表达方式也不一样,往往比较注意文采,更委婉,也更详细具体. 3. 审题构思攻略 审题构思步骤可以概括为"三个确定,一个注意".1)根据写作对象确定文章用正式还是非正式的文体;2)根据题目中的关键词,确定主体内容的逻辑顺序;3)根据话题明确需要表达的感情类型,结合交际目的,确定表达方式,可以选用合适的套语.注意:要重点选用自己熟悉的表述方式. 4.写作素材准备攻略 信函是传达感情交流意见的载体,因此任何信件的都可大致分成以下方面:1 表达感情2描述事件3. 陈述意见,考研信函也不例外.要把信函写的流畅、达到交流的目的,首先需要了解情感的正确表达方式.在书信中经常体现的情感有:感激、愤怒、高兴、哀伤等.平时要留意和积累情感的表达方式(比如:it's my pleasure to…).如果在考研作文中能够把情感表达的恰如其分,自然能让文章出彩. 另外写好考研作文还需要对事件描述和意见陈述部分有所准备.考研应用文在话题选择方面有其自身的特点.从05年增加应用文考查以来,考查内容都和考生熟悉的生活有着千丝万缕的联系,或以考生日常生活场景为背景(如05年的辞职信、07年针对图书馆的建议信、08年对误拿房东CD的道歉信),或以社会热点问题为切入点(06年捐助贫困儿童的申请信、09年针对限塑令没有达到理想效果的建议信).因此考生需要准备社会热点问题的相关英语表述,可以与大作文话题准备工作同步进行.另外考生也要留意日常生活的相关英语表达,可以养成在日记中用英语描述日常生活的习惯. 二、常见信函的基本类型及内容要点 1.信的基本类型 英文书信主要分为两大类:私人信函和公务信函.私人信函是指与朋友、家人之间的往来书信,其内容比较自由,只需要包括以下几个部分即可:日期、称呼、正文、落款.公务信函类型多样,应用范围非常广泛,属正式文体,包括求职信、辞职信、拒聘信、询问信、复询信、留学和奖学金申请信、投诉信、答复赔偿信等.此类信件的共同特点是:1.内容明确,不可漫无目标;2.措辞诚恳,坦然,不能感情夸张;3.语言清晰、简洁、有礼.从形式上看应该侧重考查公务信函,因为只有此类信函才需用到书面语的正式语体. 2.各类信函的内容要点 以下主要针对公务信函,介绍几种常见信函的基本特点.对于其他不同功能的信件,考生可以根据本书的介绍做到举一反三.在备考阶段,考生应熟悉各类信函的书写模式及常用话语并加强练习. (1)求职信(Letters of Applying for a Job) 通常包含三个部分:a)引言部分写明写信原因、具体谋求的职位、获得申请信息的来源(如:报纸广告、熟人介绍)等.b)发展部分叙述自己能够胜任该职位所具备的条件,包括教育背景、工作经历、社会实践等.这部分内容要具体,不要空洞游说或者列举,用事实说服会更有力.C)结尾部分再次表达对职位的渴望,争取面试机会.如请求及时回信、希望当面洽谈、提供进一步接触的联系方式或指出附件中有相关的证明文件等. 求职信的语言应严谨、规范、得体.其常用套语有: 引言:I am writing to apply for the post of... advertised in... In answer to your advertisement in... for the post of... , Iwould like to apply for... Ihave learned from... (sb) of your opening/vacancy for... (job), and am therefore writing to apply for the post. 发展:Iam now a senior student in (Department) of (University), and Iexpect to graduate in (date) with a degree in (discipline). Ireceive my (degree) in (subject) from (name of university) in (date). Since graduation, Ihave been working with (name of company/organization) as (job title) Iwas awarded the prize of (title) in (month/year) for (eg. good performance in etc.) Iam confident that my academic training has prepared me to handle the job. 结尾:Enclosed are testimonials from my university teacher and my present employer. If these meet your requirements, please grant me an interview. 范例: Directions: You come across a want advertisement in 21st Century Talent Report for a store manager of a Panda chain restaurant. Write a letter to apply for the job by providing the following information: 1)your interest in the position, 2)your qualifications, 3)your hope for an interview opportunity. Dear Sir or Madam: Your advertisement in 21st Century Talent Report appealed to me for two reasons. I seek the opportunity to manage a newly opened store and your plan to open up a new branch of Panda restaurants can realize my wish. I am also interested in building my career in the food industry which is just your main business. Therefore, I have decided to submit my resume in application for the position of Store Manager. My relevant experience includes being a chef in a Sichuan restaurant for three years and an assistant store manager of New China restaurant till now in Beijing. I look forward to discussing opportunities at Panda with you. I will call you next week to make sure you have received my resume and to set up a mutually agreeable time for us to speak. Yours truly, Li Ming (2)辞职信(Letters of Resignation) 正式的辞职信应具备以下要素: a)受理者恰当的称呼; b)辞职决定及其理由(如:未受公司重用或尊重,健康、家庭或个人原因,另觅一份更适合自己的工作等); c)缓和气氛的语句,如对原单位所给予工作机会以及提供的工作经历表示感谢,对因自己辞职而给对方带来的不便表示歉意,表达对原单位的良好祝愿等等. 需要注意的是:避免负面评论.不论什么原因,不要对你的公司政策、老板、管理人员、同事做任何负面评价. 常用套语如下: 称呼:Dear Mr. Smith 辞职决定和理由: With regret, I am writing to inform you about my decision to resign from my current position. I hereby confirm in writing my resignation from ABC Company because of family reasons. 缓和语气的话:I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks for all the support that Ihave received over the last few weeks, and for the enjoyable experience of having worked for your company. I hope you will consider my request, and Iapologize for any inconveniences Imight have caused. I wish all of you a prosperous future 范例:2005年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (3)留学和奖学金申请信(Letters of Applying for Admittance and Scholarship) 申请者是通过申请信争取继续学习和获得奖学金的机会,而申请学校负责人则是通过该信决定其是否具有这样的机会.因此这封信需要尽可能得表现写信人所具有的优势,比如个人性格优点,学业工作成绩等等.信的内容通常涉及: a) 申请该学校/奖学金的原因; b) 使你对某个专业产生兴趣的学术背景和训练; c) 工作经验; d) 能证明你潜能的研究; e) 未来职业计划. 如果对方学校有要求,还应附上"个人简历"、学习成绩、研究成果的摘要等. 虽然申请信需要表现自己去争取机会,但其语言不应过于夸张,避免使用像excellent,remarkable,wonderful,great之类的形容词吹捧申请的学校或夸耀自己,而应自然而平实.其常用套语有: I am a student in... , expecting to graduate with a Bachelor's degree this summer. I am interested in... and plan to apply for admission for (time). Iam writing in the hope that Imay obtain an opportunity to further my study in... I should be pleased to forward my credentials, such as references, transcripts and photocopies of IELTS scores. 范例: Directions: Suppose you are a major in Environmental Engineering of Beijing University. After graduation you decide to pursue study in the graduate school in State University of New York. Write a letter of application for admission, which should include the following points: 1) make an application 2) provide your personal information and academic documents 3) express your hope for a reply To Whom It May Concern: I would like to apply for admission to the master's program in environmental science at your graduate school, beginning in fall 2006. As a bachelor of science, I will graduate from Beijing University, Beijing, China in the summer of 2005 where I majored in Environmental Engineering. I have completed all the required undergraduate courses with satisfactory scores. Official copies of my transcript and of my TOEFL and GRE scores are being sent separately from the offices concerned. Three recommendation letters are also being sent by my professors. I do not have the funds to finance my education; therefore I will be applying for an application fee waiver and full financial support from the university to cover tuition and living expenses. I look forward to your early reply. Please do not hesitate to contact me if my supporting documents are not enough for consideration of my application. You can contact me by e-mail at LiMing@yahoo.com. Thank you for your kind assistance in this matter. Sincerely, Li Ming (4)询问信(Letters of Inquiry) 询问信是请求对方提供需要信息的信件.可分三大部分:引言部分自我介绍并讲明询问目的.发展部分是询问的主要内容,如果包括多个方面,为了让对方一目了然,也便于回答,在内容的安排上应简明扼要,可以用数字列出具体问题,如first, second, third或1、2、3.结尾部分真诚地感谢对方. 由于询问有可能给对方带来麻烦,所以措辞要谦虚、诚恳.其常用套语有: 引言:As a student at... university, Iam preparing for... Your answers to the questions below would help me... As we are particularly interestedin... , we should be grateful if you would kindly... 发展:Could you please send me the relevant information and application form? 结尾:Your answer will contribute to my project. Iwould appreciate receiving your answer by... ( time ). 范例1: Directions: You are preparing for an English test and are in need of some reference books. Write a letter to the sales department of a bookstore to ask for: 1) detailed information about the books you want, 2) methods of payment, 3) time and way of delivery. Dear Sir/Madam, As a student preparing for TOEFL in the coming May, I am writing to ask if you have Approaches to TOEFL written by Professor Wang Siming and published by University College Press in 2004. If you have the book for sale, I'd like to mail order it and please let me know if I can pay for it by money order or MasterCard. I'd appreciate it if you could send me the book at your earliest convenience by EMS to the following address: Li Ming Room 239, Student Dormitory No. 11 West Campus, Baoshan University Baoshan, 103008 Thank you for your consideration. Yours truly, Li Ming 范例2: Directions: You are doing a research project on the future of the printing industry. Write a letter to the industry market analyst Mr. Wang to ask for: 1) the challenges the industry is facing 2) the role of technologies 3) the trend in the industry Dear Mr. Wang: As a student at Beijing College of printing, I am currently doing a research project on the future of the printing industry. I feel that an inside view of the market situation at this time is necessary for me to have a convincing conclusion so I am eager for your suggestions. Would you please spare a few minutes answering a few questions about the market for printing industry? 1.In general,what challenges is the printing industry facing at this time, and what types of strategies are being used to meet them? 2.What types of technologies are important to this industry at present and what technologies do you feel will play an important role in the near future? 3.Do you think that this industry will experience growth in the future, and, if so, what trends do you expect to see occurring? If you would kindly take the time to answer these questions, I'd venture to hope you can reply it before the end of April-the deadline of my report. Thank you in advance for your attention to my request. Sincerely, Li Ming (5)投诉信 投投诉信是因为对服务、商品等不满而向诸如商店、厂家、消费者协会等相关负责机构写的信件.写此类信件时候,应注意写信的目的不仅仅是表示不满,更重要的是让对方了解并解决你所遇到的问题.因此投诉信的内容可包括: 1)反映问题.比如应具体说明什么质量问题,并提供确切的发票,问题的内容要明确而具体. 2)说明由此问题所带来的不便、比如时间或精神上的损失等,内容要实事求是. 3)提出解决方案,赔偿方法和方式等,所提出的要求要合理. 4)结尾既要提出希望,比如要求对方尽快解决问题,同时又要为对方做出的努力表示感谢,这样对方才可能以积极的态度处理并解决你的问题. 投诉信的语气要坚决,但注意礼貌用词,不宜过分尖锐,叙述问题时用过去时态.其常用套语有: 引言:I am returning... which Ibought from your store in... (time). Imust complain about... 发展:This has put us to great inconvenience. Therefore, Iam returning... and would greatly appreciate if you could replace it. 结尾:We hope that you will understand our expectation of the compensation for our damaged goods. Iwould be grateful if this matter would have your immediate attention. Having been given your excellent reputation, Iam sure you will do everything possible to... 范例: Directions: You bought a pair of tennis bats (item #6542951) from website. When you received them, you found they were used with dirt all over around and a small tear in the handle. Write a letter to the customer service manager of the store to tell him about the used bats 2)ask for a refund Dear Sir or Madam: I have recently ordered a new pair of tennis bats (item #6542951) from your website on June 21. I received the order on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it I saw that the bats were used. They had dirt all over around and there was a small tear in the handle. My order number is AF26168156. To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for my bats, I have already went out and bought a new pair at my local sporting goods store so sending another would result in me having two pairs of the same bats. Thank you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many years and this is the first time I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at (555) 555-5555. Sincerely, Li Ming (6)建议信 建议信是写信人希望对解决问题有所帮助而向相关部门或者个人写的信件,其主要目的是提出自己的意见,希望对方能够采纳并采取相应行动.为了达到交际目的,所提建议要合理、可行、容易让对方接受.除此之外还需要注意语气要和善,要与对方拉近距离而不可盛气凌人. 建议信的内容一般包括:1)提出亟待解决的问题;2) 分析造成问题的原因;3)提出解决办法. 常用套语有: 提出问题:It seems that … (not have desired effects, not have obtained the full attention; be not satisfactory/ perfect; have harmful/ deadly/ serious/negative effects) I am …(deeply/ really/ seriously/ terribly/greatly) concerned / worried / sad / confused about… 分析原因:Currently, … especially … ;Therefore,… ;This leads to…; one of the factors is …; It is understood that if…it will…. 提出解决方法:In order to combat the growing problem of… , … should reduce/ increase/ ensure…; I think it would be more beneficial if you could….; I think it would be helpful to…. 范例:2007年、2009年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (7)道歉信 道歉信是写信人对未尽之事向收信人表示歉意.所有道歉信都需要注意的是:解释的理由要真实而详细,态度要诚恳、语言要诚挚,从而使收信人理解,并达到最终谅解.道歉信的内容可包括:1)表示歉意并说明道歉的事因;2)解释自己的难处或苦衷;3)请求原谅或提出补救的方法. 常用套语有: 表达歉意:There's no excuse for … I forgot to …. I am indeed very sorry for …, but believe I had no intention to… Here is my deepest apology for ... Please forgive me for … 解释苦衷:The fact is that I had …/ Unfortunately I …/ I had a small accident …/ I have some urgent business to deal with My behavior yesterday was inexcusable, and I must tell you how … 请求原谅提出补救方法:I want you to know how badly feel about… and to assure you that it will not happen again. I realize that particular… is irreplaceable, but I hope you will use the enclosed check to purchase a similar one. I hope this situation can be mended to everyone's satisfaction. I can only hope you will forgive … on my part. 范例1 Directions: You have received a complaint letter from your customer for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. Write a letter to him to 1) express your apology 2) explain the reason 3) provide the solution and offer the compensation. Dear Mr. Bicman: I apologize for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. We have just implemented a new packaging system that still has a few bugs to be worked out, but we did fix your order and sent it out this morning. For your trouble, we have enclosed a $25 gift certificate which can be used at any of our stores. Once again I would like to apologize for the mix-up in your order and any inconveniences this may have caused you. Sincerely, Li Ming 范例2 2008年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (8)感谢信 感谢信的目的是感激对方为自己的付出,感激之情要传达得真挚自然,不要刻意夸大.感谢信所涉及的内容多种多样,比如可以感谢对方替自己做了一件事情,在自己痛苦时安慰了自己,出席了自己的宴会等等.其内容包括:1)表达感激之情2)回顾事情的经过 3)肯定对方帮助的价值以及对自己的影响,表达自己回报的愿望. 常用套语有: 表达感激之情:Thanks so much for…;Abundant thanks to … for… I'm writing to express my heartfelt thanks for … On behalf of my whole family, I wish to extend our heartfelt thanks for all the trouble you had taken in …I must write to thank you for inviting me to… 肯定对方帮助的价值及影响:You will never know how much we appreciated your kind and practical help. Your …meant more than I can express in words. Nothing can be more precious for me than your… 表达回报的愿望:I hope I can return the favor someday … Do call on me if I can ever return the favor. 感谢信中比较特殊是求职者面试后给面试官写的信.此类感谢信的内容不只是感谢,而是一般感谢信和求职信的结合.其主要内容包括:(1)感谢对方给你面谈的机会,并注明你面试的时间和所求的职位;(2)说明你对该公司、该职位的兴趣,强调你的知识与技能符合公司的需要,表示自己能为公司的发展做出贡献.也可以补充说明或澄清在面谈中忽略或没有讲明的问题(3)重申你对该职位的兴趣,主动提供更多的材料,表示期待他们的消息. Directions: You have just attended an interview in Apfel Incorporated for the position of marketing analyst. Write a letter of appreciation to the interviewer Mr. David Wayne. Your letter should include the following points: express your appreciation for the interview 2) tell about your job-related skills and experience Dear Mr. Wayne, Thank you very much for taking the time from your busy schedule last Friday to interview me for the marketing analyst position at Apfel Incorporated. After our meeting, I am convinced that your company is an excellent place for my career. I am extremely excited about the position and believe that my skills are a good match for the company. As you may remember, I completed a project that is similar in nature to the work I would be doing at your company. I believe that I could make an immediate contribution to Apfel Incorporated. Please let me know if I can provide you with any additional information about my background or goals. My email address is LiMing@yahoo.com, and my phone number is 12345678. I look forward to hearing from you soon. YYours sincerely, Li Ming 三、其他应用文 (一)告示与通知Notice and Announcement 告示、通知之类的应用文,写法灵活多样,有正式和非正式等多种形式,其目的均为告诉公众某件事或某项活动.文字要求简洁易懂,表达直截了当.这部分又可分为两类,一类是有关部门就某事发出的通知或张贴的告示,此类文件要求结构严谨,用词确切,通常使用比较正式的文体.另一类是关于会议或活动的简单通知,此类文章至少需要包含以下内容:时间、地点、活动内容. 范例: Prince Alfred Park NOTICE Parking of vehicles, playing of golf, walking of dogs and the riding of bicycles is prohibited in this park. Unauthorized vehicles are prohibited in this park. Town Clerk ANNOUNCEMENT A TALK ON "ENGLISH TEACHING IN SHENZHEN" will be given by Comrade Wu Mingliang on Saturday, May 10 at 8:30 a. m. in Room C510 English Department Office ANNOUNCEMENT CONCERNED STUDENTS! We need volunteers to work with kids between the ages of 7 & 17 years. You would be able to gain valuable experiences while working in an activity of your choice (i.e. pool, gym, photography, dancing, weight lifting, etc.). For further information, please contact Barb Graham at the Memorial Boys'and Girls'Club (434-6054). (二)便笺(便条) Note 便笺是一种简短信函,形式比书信简单,多使用非正式文体.内容可包括:时间、收信人、事由、写信人.通常不写发信人地址,开头甚至可以略去Dear等称呼,结尾也可略去祝贺的话和Yours sincerely等语言.其使用语言特点是通常情况下比一般的信函更接近口语.由于写信人和收信人对互相的情况都十分熟悉,因此一般的客套话均省略. 范例: May 2 Jack, I'm afraid that Ihave to go at 12:00 today to meet an overseas visitor (from Beijing). Could you please ring me to make another time? Many thanks. Ted 5thNovember, 1991. Dear Mr. Lin, Iam writing to tell you how grateful Iam for all you did for me in Beijing. I hope that you will contact me if there is anything Ican do for you. In particular, Iwould be most glad to send you or the Department any books you need. Yours sincerely, (Signature) Professor T. R. Stevens (三)备忘录 Memo 备忘录的主要作用是为雇员传达信息,它一般局限于公司或部门内部的交流,本公司或部门之外的人一般看不到.其主要功能包括:1.提供会议摘要;2.为主管人员与职员之间的交流提供更便捷的渠道;3.确认电话交谈或会面的内容. 备忘录一般使用非正式文体,但也可以根据内容及收文人与发文人之间关系而具体决定,例如向上级报道重要事情就需要使用正式文体.如果备忘录内容不止一个,则可以采取分段的形式,也可采用数字编号. 备忘录的结构形式一般包括以下几个部分: (1)标题:Memo位于第一行正中. (2)信头(Headings):包括To,From,Subject和Date等措词.To后面接收件人姓名、职务等;From后面接备忘录写作者的姓名(注意作者姓名前面不用Dr.,Miss,Mr.,Ms之类的称呼);Subject后是备忘录主要内容的概括性小标题;Date后写日期. (3)正文段落:主题下面空两行写正文,不用称呼和结尾礼词. (4)打字员姓名首字母(Reference Initials):写在正文末行空一行的地方. (5)附件(Enclosure) 范例: Memo To: All Staff From: Robert White, Managing Director Date: Jan. 10 2004 Subject: Entertainments Or Gifts During Spring Festival At around this time of year many invitations are received from companies and clients to Spring Festival dinners. Gifts are also sometimes received. Iam sure that such offers only resultfrom a job being well done and it is certainly pleasing to know that the level of service provided by staff is appreciated. The acceptance of any offers, entertainment or gifts can, however, lead to either a real or perceived conflict of interest. To ensure that this does not arises, all such offers should be declined and gifts returned. Ishould appreciate your understanding and cooperation. R. W. 第六部分写作B部分命题的特点和规律 在研究生英语入学考试中,英语写作历来是考生的一个难点.英语写作主要考查考生运用英语的综合能力,其中包括用英语组织篇章段落的能力、英语的语句表达能力以及语法的综合运用能力.要做好写作部分的试题,要求考生不仅具有较扎实的语言基础,而且还要掌握一些写作的基本技能,如:信息的分析和综合能力以及丰富的想像力.英文写作是一个最能体现考生书面英语水平和技能的测试项目. 一、写作B部分命题的基本指导思想 考试大纲对写作的评价目标 根据《大纲》规定:考生应根据题目以及写作提纲或规定的情境、图表、图画等写出大约200个词的短文.具体要求概括如下: (1)内容切题,包含提纲或图画的全部要点和信息.所谓内容切题是指所写的短文切合题意,即正确理解题目的意思.误解题目或曲解题意,写出来的短文答非所问就是跑题.另外,也要注意不漏掉提纲或图画中的要点和信息,如果提纲中给出了三个要点,考生却只写了两个要点,显然从内容上就不切题了.因此,审题是短文写作成败的关键.考生一定要认真阅读写作要求,仔细琢磨题意,弄清题目以及写作提纲或规定情境、图表的内容范围,依此表达题目限定的中心思想,做到内容切题. (2)表达清楚,意思连贯.表达清楚是指清楚地表达思想,而不是含糊其辞,使人不得要领.在写作过程中,考生应思路清晰,运用恰当的语句表达意思.此外,还要根据题目要求,围绕中心提出论点,摆出论据,使短文层次分明,合乎逻辑.意思连贯是指句子与句子、段落与段落之间衔接自然,整体性强.考生应熟练运用连接词语来正确表达一个观点与另一观点之间的关系. (3)用词正确,句式有变化,语言比较规范.语言比较规范是指在遣词造句中应符合英语语法和习惯用法.首先在词语运用上能够选用恰当的、能够准确表达意义的词,并能显示出一定的词汇量(用词面较宽);其次,写出的句子符合语法规范,没有重大语法错误,句式上多变,不要只用简单句或陈述句,应适当增加句子形式的多样性,不仅有短句,也有长句,不仅有简单句,也有并列句、复合句等等. (4)文章的长度符合要求.长度是指短文的字数.符合要求的字数应是160至200个词左右. 现将大纲对写作部分的评分标准摘录如下: (1)20~17分.内容切题,包括题中所列三个方面的内容;清楚表达其内涵,文字连贯;句式有变化,句子结构和用词正确.文章长度符合要求. (2)16~13分.内容切题,包括题中所列三个方面的内容;比较清楚地表达其内涵,文字基本连贯;句式有一定变化,句子结构和用词无重大错误;文章长度符合要求. (3)12~9分.内容切题,基本包含题中所列三个方面的内容;基本清楚地表达其内涵,句子结构和用词无重大错误.文章长度符合要求. (4)8~5分.内容基本切题,基本包含题中所列三个方面的内容;语句可以理解,但有较多的句子结构和用词错误.文章长度基本符合要求. (5)4~1分.基本按照要求写作,但只有少数句子可以理解. (6)0分.文不切题,语句混乱,无法理解. 二、写作B部分材料的选择 (一)选择材料的特点 纵观历年试卷,写作的题目多集中在社会伦理、人生哲理、学校教育、人际关系交往、娱乐方式、健康和生活方式等方面.最近几年的命题多与当前的社会现实和热点问题有关,要求考生对社会现象和社会的经济、文化生活有所关注和思考,并形成自己的见解. 从命题内容来看,其材料特点有: 1. 普遍性:发生在身边的事情,各种考生都有一定的体验,可以有感而发.比如2003年的温室里的花和2002年的中国与国际的交流.不管你身处何处,这些现象和变化都是中国人共同体验的.考题不会考查一部分考生熟悉,而另一部分考生不了解的内容.对于社会生活中的敏感问题,一般不会涉及. 2. 教育性:论题有警示作用的,可让考生作深层思考.比如,有关人生哲理的2008年 "合作的重要性",2007年的"乐观心态是成功的关键",2004年的"终点又是新的起点". 3. 社会性:社会关心的、典型的事.如2009年的题目是网络的"近"与"远",2006年的题目是偶像崇拜,2005年则对赡养老人问题展开讨论,2003年的试题既可以讨论加入世界贸易组织后的中国经济发展的现实问题,也可以谈孩子的教育问题,2002年的题目是中外文化交流问题.因此考生平时应关注社会性的问题,加深思考深度,并且阅读英文报纸,积累相关词汇.在近10年的考题中三分之一是正面现象的分析论证,如2004年的终点又是起点,2002年的"国际化交流",2001年的"希望工程或爱心工程".而其余的考题关注的是社会中存在的一些问题,也就是说三分之二的题目是有关负面问题的分析解决. (二)作文的体裁 从体裁上看,近10年的作文都为论说文.论说文的特点是说议结合,一部分为对论题的说明,一部分为议论,或者夹叙夹议.这种写作的难点在于将说明或描写与议论有机地结合起来,形成一个衔接自然的文章. 下表为近十年考题特点的小结. 时间 中心思想 题材 类型 2009年 网络的"近"与"远" 社会生活 图画式作文 2008年 合作的重要性 人生哲理 图画式作文 2007年 乐观心态是成功的关键 人生哲理 图画式作文 2006年 偶像崇拜 社会生活 图画式作文 2005年 年轻人应该赡养父母 社会伦理 图画式作文 2004年 终点又是新的起点 人生哲理 图画式作文 2003年 温室里的花经不起风雨 教育或经济问题 图画式作文 2002年 中国与世界的文化交流 文化与交流 图画式作文 2001年 困难的时候,人人都应该献爱心 社会伦理 图画式作文 2000年 自然生态平衡遭破坏 环境保护 图画式作文 三、写作B部分题型透 (一)图画式作文 从2000到2009年这十年间B部分写作考的都是图画式作文.从命题者的角度来说,这是为了更好地考查考生的写作能力,如:理解、推断和书面组织.由于它只允许考生在规定的范围内进行描述、分析,这就避免考试时套用考试前背好的范文的现象的发生.图画常以漫画或照片的形式出现,有的图画还有题目和提示性文字,这是为了帮助考生理解图画的内容.从应试的角度看,审题、谋篇、语言是写好作文的三要素.命题,图画及题中的文字说明是用于审题的;而"写作要求"往往是针对布局谋篇的,同时写作要求也影响语言的分配. 1. 图画式作文的审题 第一,仔细研读作文指令,从题目中找出中心词,分析修饰词,从而准确地抓住题目的中心.考生首先要搞清楚作文的要求,如:是否有标题?标题是什么?是否有提纲?文章字数是多少等.然后,从作文的题目中理解命题者命题的主要意图.如2002年考题,题目为"Culture—National and International".首先,中心词为"文化",观察图片发现是一个身着中国民族服装的西方女孩的照片.从女孩那灿烂的笑容上我们不难看出她的心里是多么的欣喜,而这种欣喜来自于对中国文化的感受.而后再看修饰词"本国的,国际的",这进一步缩小写作范围为文化的交流,而这种交流反映了两方面的情况:一方面是中国文化对世界文化的渗透;另一方面是世界对中国文化的了解与接受. 第二,考生要注意题目中的文字说明,看文字说明要做到看清主、谓、宾.比如,2001年考题是"爱心是一盏灯,在越黑暗的地方越明亮".很多考生写到了爱心的比较上,哪里要多给一些爱心,哪里要少给一些爱心,这就是偏题.之所以偏题的原因就是没有抓住句子主语.这一句的主语是什么?自然是"爱心".再看其谓语、宾语,可以看出本题是提倡在需要的地方献爱心. 第三,要认真解读图画,因为图画是作文的信息基础.如果说题目与文字提供了中心的骨,那么图画就提供了中心的肉.图画作文的中心思想通常体现在图中人物的动作、表情或画龙点睛的一句或几句话中.考生可以在抓住题目与说明文字的基础上,对图画进行抽象,点出图画的寓意.如2009年考题,我们看到了网络既拉近了人们的距离也在人们之间竖起了隔膜.2006年考题,我们看到了对明星盲目的崇拜.2002年考题,我们可以看到欣喜——了解中国文化的欣喜. 2. 图画式作文的谋篇 作文的题干中会提出两到三项写作要求,考生在谋篇时要抓住这些要求.虽然图画式作文的写作要求看似变化莫测,但实际上只涉及5个方面:描述图画、指明寓意、分析原因、联系实际、给出建议.不仅历年的考查内容有限,考查内容的个数也很相似,一般来说是考查3个考点.即使只有两条要求,实际上它常包含一个隐性条件,所以考生也要涉及3点才能把文章写透彻.比如2009年的考题要求:1) describe the drawing briefly 2)explain its intended meaning 3) give your comments.由于这些写作要求类似于提纲,图画式作文也可以当做三段式的提纲作文.第一段用来描述图画并揭示出其寓意(寓意用一句话来概括即可),第二段分析原因,最后一段发表评论或提出建议.篇幅的比例分配,第二、三段应是文章的重点,应占2/3. 3. 图画式作文的语言组织 作文的语言应长短句兼顾,句式变化多样,当然语法的正确性是必需的.如果实在掌握或控制不好语言,可以采用长短句按1∶3的比例或反之.句子写完后,也可自问一下是否用了分词结构,不定式,感叹句等多种句式.如没有,可适当调整句式.在组织语言中要特别注意连贯性,连贯性不仅从连词、语句的使用中体现出来,更重要的是语意的相互照应.考生要注意自己的作文中心是否与主题句紧密连接,例子是否直接支持主题,号召是否呼应了主题和例子,等等. 4. 图画式作文的描写 描写是再现客观事物,其目的是使人感受到具体的情况.考研作文中的描写应注意的问题:第一,围绕主题,描写最突出的特征和能够支持主旨的细节;第二,描写要按照一定的逻辑顺序进行(如时间、空间等);第三,描写力求生动、形象、准确.如: Waller,Texas,is a small town for all other forms of civilization. There is no movie theater,no bowling alley,and certainly no mall. This place doesnt even have a WalMart. Residents of Waller have all heard the saying: "There are only two things for kids to do in Waller,and one of them is drinking." This may seem humorous at first,but,unfortunately,there is some truth to it. 描述是为一定中心服务的.本段通过描述Waller精神生活的缺乏引出文章中心:娱乐活动缺乏带来酗酒等社会问题. (二)图表式作文 图表作文是通过提供的一组或几组数据来反映某个趋势或某一问题、现象.要求考生对图表中的相关数据进行描述、分析和评论,并得出合乎逻辑的结论.它是将数据、形象信息转换为文字信息的过程. 图表作文要求的不是对图表的简单叙述,而是抓住图表所反映的主要问题.因为图表式作文所要讨论的现象和问题都隐含在数据里,所以考生常会感到比较难写.因此要想抓住主旨,就要分析图表中那些最有代表性、规律性的数字,或变化大的数字.它的写作误区是报流水账,对数据面面俱到,却不能指出图表所反映的中心,也不能利用数据进行有力的论证. 常见的图表类型有:①表格,它表示多种事物的相互关系;②曲线,它常表示事物的变化趋势;③柱状,它用来表示几种事物的变化情况及相互关系;④饼状,表示各事物在总体中所占的比例及相互关系. 表格和曲线作文的审题与其他类型的作文相比难度较大,主要表现在考生不易准确、全面地把握图表显示的信息.这类作文提供了大量数据,但题目往往要求少用所给数据,避免简单罗列数据.一般用一般现在时,如果图表提供了时间参数,则应采用相应的时态. 图表作文的写作步骤:①分析图表及说明性文字;②分析数字所反映的主旨,得出中心论点;③列提纲;④写作. 关于图表式作文的描述方法: 第一种情况:横向对比.描述这种图表需要对比各数据间的差别,主要以数值、倍数、排列等方式来描述. 常用句型: ①A department has the lowest sales figure in the three departments,followed by the B department and C department. ②The figure of A is about twice as much as that of B. ③The income from sales is 10 million,making the company the highest one in sales. ④The A's income reaches 20 million,which is in the middle of the list. 第二种情况:纵向说明.只要指出不同单位之间的比较,描述如何增减,增减幅度如何,反映出什么问题,就可以了.描述这样的图表时,可用以下词汇和句型: ①The rise lasted for two weeks and then began to level off in June. ②The trend/increase slowed down in May. ③The trend of increasing working hours began to gain momentum in January. (开始走强) ④Prices went up by 50%, but the number of smokers maintained. ⑤It picked up speed at the end of this year. 常用词汇及表达法:increase,decrease,rise,fall,slow down,level off,pick up speed,maintain,drop,the trend reverses,decline,gain/lose momentum, a steady/ substantial(实质性的)increase,a minor/slight/dramatic drop. 第三种情况:纵向、横向均有的说明.这种图表不仅要注意同一事物的变化趋势,也要注意不同事物之间的差距及变化. 表示百分比常用句型: ①It accounts for 30% of the total population. ②There are 4 members with master's degrees,making up nearly a quarter of the workforce. ③Doctors make up 40% of the staff in the hospital. 表示增长率的常用句型: ①The figure of income increased by about 200% as compared with ten years ago. ②The number of students has reached 200,indicating a rise of 4%,compared to last year. Example: The two bar charts indicate the annual emissions of CO2 per capita and populations of seven countries. Industrialized countries certainly contribute more to the CO2 levels in the atmosphere,with the US at the top —3.93 tons per capita per year. It is followed by Japan and the UK,with emissions of 3.32 tons and 2.15 tons respectively. Though these countries usually don't have large populations,they consume disproportionately large quantities of natural resources and therefore are more blamed for global warming. Developing countries,on the other hand,usually have lower levels of emissions. China,for example,has the largest population in the list. Yet its emission of CO2 per capita is only 980 kg,being about a quarter of the emission level of the US. Another good example is Korea. Its population is the smallest in the list,so is its per capita emission of CO2 The charts show no correlation between emission levels of CO2 and the sizes of population. 本文比较了7个国家二氧化碳排放的变化幅度,及相互对比关系. 其它图表式作文的常用句型: ①The curves show__in a certain year. ②It can be seen that__(sth)fluctuates quite substantially in this year. ③It just increases slightly. ④The pie charts show the changes__in some place in 1999 ⑤It can be seen from the chart that the proportions of A and B are going down, though the falling level of the latter is a lot higher/lower than that of the former. ⑥The expansion is more noticeable during the second half of the 8--year period. ⑦It falls from 30% of the staff in 1990 to 20% in 1998 and then the trend reverses, finishing at 34% in 2000. ⑧And A is higher than B except for the months June to September.__drops dramatically from about__in January to__in June. ⑨The falling trend levels off from__to__,__(sth) goes all the way up to__and then it begins to drop to. (三)提纲式命题作文 提纲式作文既有论说文,也有议论文.它主要考查的内容为:说明主题,分析原因或解释做法.例如:1995年的试题"希望工程"中提纲的要求是:(1) Present situation. (2) Necessity of the project. (3)My suggestion.它要求考生解释说明"希望工程",分析开展希望工程的意义和原因,联系考生自己提出一些建议或具体的做法.从提纲的要求上看,提纲式命题作文对联系社会的要求不是很多,写作难度也相对较小.它要求考生在正确理解题意的基础上,根据提纲去选择素材.提纲提供了每段的段落大意,在开展论述时不能偏离提纲或改变内容.提纲一般为三部分,考生应针对提纲采用三段的结构来开展文章.如: Nowadays,China's economy is fast developing. People's living standard has improved a lot. In some areas,however,there are still many people living below the poverty line. They have difficulties for the very basics like food and clothes,let alone getting good education. What can we do to help these less developed areas in our country? I think we can do the following things. First of all,the government and our society must pay more attention to these less developed areas. The government should spend more money on the basic construction projects in these areas instead of spending it on cultural and artistic projects in cities. It should also encourage some private enterprises and companies to donate to these poor areas. Secondly,transportation is very important in less developed areas. We should help them build more railways and more roads so that the local people can benefit from the convenient transportation. It can also promote their communication with developed areas. Finally,technology is necessary in developing economy in these areas. Poor farmers should be taught technology and new skills and should have easier access to money in the bank,such as getting loans to start businesses. All in all,so long as we continue our efforts to help these less developed areas,these areas will shake off poverty sooner or later. 再如: Directions: Write an article to an English newspaper discussing laid-off workers and re-employment in China. In your article you should (1) describe briefly the present situation of unemployment, (2) analyze the causes of it, (3) give advice for re-employment. You should write about 200 words neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. 范文: There is an increasing number of workers,not only the middle-aged but also the young who are laid off from their jobs. Some laid-offs thus become poverty-stricken and can hardly support their children to continue their studies. And those employed are also worried a great deal that someday they may lose their jobs. This phenomenon has caught great attention in society. In order to maintain social stability,many re-employment service centers are being set up to give the laid-offs a helping hand. The increasing number of laid-off workers is caused mainly by the industrial restructuring and economic development across the country. In market economy,the enterprises have to reduce workforce or the redundant. Another reason is that some enterprises claim bankruptcy owing to their poor management and backward product structure,which made millions of workers jobless. Laborers from the countryside are also contributing to the increasing numbers of the laid-offs. Off-job doesn't mean no job. There are plenty of opportunities for the laid-off workers to be re-employed. Take Shanghai for example,the city is developing into an international economic center,shifting its old labor intensive industries out of the city and replacing them with new enterprises. But there is a fundamental requirement for the laid-offs if they want to be enrolled in these new posts. They must have certain skills. To many laid-off workers,they have to get job training to make themselves qualified and competitive in the human resources market. 四、写作B部分的主要写作方法 (一)主题句的写法 1.主题句的特点 主题句是全段的核心.它由中心词和限定词两部分组成.中心词说明讨论的主题(topic)是什么,限定词是把主题具体化,它限定讨论的内容,范围和展开方式等.例如: The first key factor to success is diligence, (what) which simply means no waste of time. 主题 限定词 限定词 I think you will make the decision according to the following factors.(how) 主题 限定词 考生可通过回答How?Why? Where? What?等问题来把主题具体化,选定限定词.主题句的展开通常会出现如下问题: (1)过于空洞.只给出主题,未指出写作内容和展开方式.如: The relationship is not good.此句可以通过回答what kind of relationships,to what extent等问题将之具体化.可改为:The relationship between family members is not as close as before.这样主题句限定了关系的范围,文章后面的开展方式——侧重于现在关系的不好,又可以用对比的方式展开.再如: Clothes play a part in our life.此句没有限定写作的大体内容或方式,(是衣服的时尚性,还是实用性),读者不能预测下文的展开方向.通过回答"how"这样的问题,我们可将主题句具体化.改为:Clothes play a critical part in the conclusions we reach by providing clues to who people are.修改后的句子点出了文章的写作内容——根据服装,可以判断人. (2)过于具体.太具体的主题句使段落后面没有展开的余地.如: He thought highly of her and helped her to find jobs of teaching at several institutions. 这种叙述性的句子,对事实的陈述过于详尽,不适合做主题句. 2.主题句的位置 (1)位于段首,也就是开门见山.把主旨放在段首,使读者对文章内容、结构等有个把握.在应试中,这是十分行之有效的方法.如: From the health point of view we are living in a marvelous age. We are immunized from birth against many of the dangerous diseases. A large number of once fatal illnesses can now be cured by modern drugs and surgery. It is almost certain that one day remedies will be found for the most stubborn remaining diseases. The expectation of life has increased enormously. 段首主题句清晰地点出本段的中心思想,后面从对疾病的免疫、治疗,及对疾病的攻克三个方面说明健康医疗状况良好.读者只看段首就可抓住段落主旨. (2)位于段中.主题句出现在中间,起到承上启下的作用,上文引出背景,下文可以用于分析.如: Before China's entry into the WTO,the common people were optimistic about what access would mean,believing that if joining were not beneficial,the government would not have spent 15 years negotiating for its entry. They were perhaps thinking that when the day came,the price of phone calls would be lower,and also house rents and that insurance services would be better. But they neglect the prospect of unemployment and other domestic crisis.Since China joined the WTO,some people,owing to advanced age and limited experience,may find it difficult to keep their work. 文章开始铺垫了一个对待入世的积极的期待,而中间的主题句将文风一转,引出主旨:入世带来的消极方面.然后文章从失业开始进一步展开论证. (3)位于段末.主题句位于段末,既可以点题,也可以总结上文,给读者留下深刻的印象.如: Ms. Yang,aged 50,works as a cleaner in an office building,and her annual income is about 20 000 yuan.She has signed up for an English language training course,the cost of which is much more than her annual income. Why English? English-based success stories have indicated to the Chinese that English means opportunities,wealth,and prospects. 本文先举了杨女士花钱学英语的例子,然后引出问题:为什么要花如此高价学习英语.段末给出结论,点出学习英语的重要性.结尾点题,给人以深刻的印象. (二)段落的拓展 1.段落的作用 首先,好的段落要求每段只能有一个主题,围绕一个中心思想展开.与中心不同的观点或无关的内容都应删去.其次,结构连贯:适当地运用过渡词指明文章内部的逻辑关系. Example 1 Reforming and opening up have helped the villagers to live a comfortable life. (主题句) Before 1983 the village practiced a collective ownership system,whereby the villagers picked and baked tea leaves together.Life was hard and their income meager,so they had no incentive to work hard."We got rich after the fields were parceled out to households in 1983," says Sun Jinrong.Since then,the villagers have tilled their own plots.Having learned to follow the laws of the market economy and competition,their living standards have greatly improved. 段首提出中心论点:改革开放使茶农过上了好日子.后按时间顺序,先描写1983年以前吃大锅饭的情形,又说改革开放后生活水平的提高.前后形成对比,充分说明论点. Example 2 I hold the view that children can play computer games in their spare time,and the reasons are explored as follows. First, computer games should be played moderately,with the control of parents. It can help children to relax and improve their efficiency in their studies. Second,playing computer games moderately can offer children chances to develop their creativity,which is essential for their success in study. Third, playing computer games can broaden children's knowledge. It is well-known that a machine will break down if it keeps running without a stop. Similarly, if a child keeps studying without relaxation,he will be tired out. And if a child spends all this time studying,he will become a dull boy in the ivory tower. 本段开头点出中心,然后用过渡词指出三个原因.最后加以总结.文章结构一目了然. 2.关于段落的写作方法 (1)定义法 当考生提出的概念或观点很抽象,涉及面广时,考生需要对概念进行解释,限定内容,从而缩小讨论的焦点.如: Ambition is like choler (胆汁),which is a humour,that makes men active,earnest,full of alacrity,and stirring,if it be not stopped. But if it be stopped,and cannot have its way,it becomes angry,and malign. So ambitious men,if they find the way open for their rising,and still get forward,they're rather busy than dangerous; but if they be checked in their desires,they become secretly discontent,and look upon men and matters,with an evil eye. 本文是对抱负/雄心的分析.而这个题目本身范围太广,因此作者先给它下了个定义,确定讨论的方向:抱负/雄心在不同条件下表现出来的不同特性.这样就缩小了讨论范围,确定了讨论的方向. 当然作者也可通过从句来对事物进行定义和解释,如: Hemophilia is called the bleeder's disease because the afflicted person's blood is unable to clot. (2)时间、空间顺序法 以事情发展的顺序,或时间的先后安排材料.在描写、分析社会变化的文章中常用顺序进行写作,同时也可以起到新旧对比论证的作用.如: Before a stop sign was put up, there were one hundred and twenty accidents there in a year. After a stop sign was put up,there were only forty accidents in a year. Having the stop sign there decreased the number of accidents immediately. 文章用时间上的对比来论证了竖标牌的作用.通过时间顺序安排材料,结构清晰,论证了标牌的作用. 当图画比较复杂,而且方位较强时,考生可按照空间顺序进行描述.这样,考生既可以对描写思路有所了解,又可使文章结构清晰.如: The kitchen was in a mess. Along the left wall were the counter and sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage. On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy clothes. Right next to the door where I was standing,on my right,I saw a table cluttered with old newspapers,an overturned catsup bottle. At the far end of the right wall the refrigerator stood with door ajar. It was the messiest kitchen I had ever seen. (3)因果分析法 这种方法是一种分析法,在阐释观点中常用.按因果关系的不同,可以分为一因一果、一因多果、一果多因.单一的因果关系往往用来分析简单的问题.而对于文章主要论点的分析,应采用一因多果、一果多因的方法,这样可以全方位多个角度透彻地分析问题.如: The Beijing subway is to adopt international signs.(主题句)The Chinese characters originally used for east,west,south and north are to be replaced by the letters A,B,C and D. The subway operator explained that the four Chinese characters indicating directions no longer meet the needs of passengers,given the diversity of subway stations and increases in the number of entrances and exits.(因)Therefore,universal signs used worldwide will be adopted.(果) 文章分析了北京地铁采用国际化标志的原因,为一因一果的形式.再如: The main reason why professors should give frequent exams (果) is that when they do and when they provide feedback to students on how well they're doing,students learn more in the course and perform better on major exams (原因1).Moreover,If students had frequent exams in all their courses,they would have to schedule study time each week and gradually would develop a habit of frequent study (原因2). 作者采用一果多因的方法分析了教授应经常测试学生的原因. (4)例证法 考生可以用他人的例子,自己的经历或名人的故事作为实例,来把论点具体化.从考生的作文中,我们可以看出,贴切、具有社会深度的例子可以有效地深化主题.为了能在考试中很好地举例,平时应对有社会意义的例子多加积累、分类.如: It is very difficult to evaluate another person's performance objectively. For example,Jane recently wrote irresponsible remarks about her instructor because she was failing the course. Her friend Sam wrote a great description of the same instructor because he was receiving an A in the course. Both Jane and Sam were not fairly evaluating the instructor. They were influenced by the grades they were earning and were biased in their judgement. 本段通过两个例子的对比,论证了很难客观地评价一个人. (5)分类法 分类法是根据不同的类别来讨论,这可以使很复杂的内容变得层次清晰,论述更全面.如: "The wolf has come!" No one knows who gave the first warning,but it made a large impact on two main groups: the common people and entrepreneurs. The common people hoped that it would mean more inexpensive commodities,while entrepreneurs worried about encirclement by transnational companies. 本段通过两种不同类型的人对同一问题的不同看法,表明不同的中国人对入世的不同期待和看法. (6)对比和对照法 对比法比较的是事物的相同点;对照法比较的是事物的不同点.通过对比或对照熟悉和不熟悉的事物,考生可以了解不熟悉的事物;通过对比或对照相同点或不同点,考生可以更准确地评价事物. 要点式:先讲解两个事物在一点上的相同或不同点,再去讲解他们在另一点上的异同之处 主题式:先讲解一个事物的各个方面,再讲解另一个事物 第一段 A1 B1 第二段 A2 B2 第一段 A1 A2 第二段 B1 B2 如: As a creature,I eat; as a man,I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of my mind,they are in a way quite similar. To keep ourselves alive,we need all kinds of nutrition. 1) Eating is the most important way by which we can get starch,protein,vitamin,sugar,fat,and some trace elements. 2) On the other hand,we eat not only because we have to do so,but also because we enjoy doing so. Having satisfied our hunger,eating can then be a kind of enjoyment. The color,the smell,and the taste of the food are considered as important as its nutritive value. Very often we eat some food not because it is nourishing but simply because welike it. Similarly,to enrich our minds,we need information and knowledge,which can be obtained through reading.1) Reading is one of the most important ways of learning. Without reading our minds will become empty like that of an animal. 2) Sometimes,we take reading as a pastime,and we relax and learn at the same time. Since recreation is involved,we will naturally have a partiality for some particular kinds of books,just as we do for certain kind of food. Besides,there are other similarities between eating and reading. 1)We should not eat too much without digesting and assimilating,nor should we read too much without understanding and remembering. 2) While we are eating, we should leave out the rotten part of the food which will do harm to our health; and while we are reading,we should be able to reject the poisonous content in a book,for it will poison our minds. So,eat sensibly and read sensibly to give yourself a strong body and a healthy mind. 本文比较了吃饭与读书的异同.第二、三段采用的是主题法比较它们的相同之处,第四段是通过要点式来进行比较的. (三)文章开头与结尾的写作方法 1.文章开头的写法 (1)引言法 在文章开头引用具有代表性的名人名言,既可吸引读者,又可以点题.如: "Be the first to be concerned with the world's troubles and the last to enjoy worldly happiness."Fan Zhongyan,a scholar of the Song Dynasty,expresses eloquently the lofty spirit of Chinese intellectuals in his maxim. On realizing that the cause of China's lack of development was its backwardness in science and technology,many modern scholars accordingly went to Western countries to study. 本段以"先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐"引出主旨,给人以深刻的印象. (2)提问法 如: Why are foreigners so glad that barriers have been dismantled? China has a population of 1.2 billion,and US $1 000 billion of GDP. It is a country with one of the fastest economic growth rates in the world. China's entry into the WTO will therefore enable all economic entities in the world to expand trade and investment,bringing benefits to enterprises,consumers and workers in these countries. (3)数据引用 引用恰当的数据,使文章开头简洁、有力.对于表格式作文,常从描述、分析表格入手.如: It is reported that from 1995 to 1998,the number of cars in Shanghai rose at the rate of 20%,but the average speed of cars dropped at the rate of 30%. It should be noticed that 43% of added cars during the period of 1995~1998 is private cars. Therefore some people point out that the most effective way to solve the traffic problem is to ban private cars. But I think they have gone extremely far away. 本段通过引用数据对私车增多及车速下降这一现象进行了详细的描述.通过分析,作者自然地引出观点:完全禁止私车是偏激的做法. (4)概要法 开门见山,首先提出文章的主要观点,然后通过举例或逻辑推理等方法加以详述.如: This report is divided into three main sections: what equipment you need,how to use equipment,and how to maintain equipment. 2.文章结尾的写法 (1)总结法 总结式结尾的作用在于回顾全文、突出中心,使读者对文章形成一个整体的把握.要想写好总结式结尾,就要求文章内容本身重点突出、中心明确,这样回顾起来才有点可抓.在写总结式结尾时,对于论证中提到的要点应该点到为止,而重在重申论点.如: On the whole,life in China has become better after 30 years,Ordinary people now enjoy a more colorful life than before. Though some problems have arisen in the progress,we still can't deny this positive trend. (2)建议法 针对文章前面的分析,提出相对应的号召或解决方案,表示对将来的期待或鼓动大家采取相应的行动.如: It is essential that effective measures should be taken to redress such inequality. It is high time that we should urge an immediate end to this phenomenon. (3)反问法 在末尾加上反问,可使文章引人思考.如: Psychological health of the youth should be concerned by our society. On being advised by his school that he should leave after failing several exams,a Beijing university student decided to commit suicide,but first killed his father and grandmother so as to spare their grief at his own death. A 13-year-old Sichuan Province girl ran away from home recently in pursuit of her favorite movie star,and has not been seen since. Isn't there anything wrong with psychological health of the youth? 用反问句加深主题:年轻人的心理健康有些问题,应该得到更多关注. (4)引语法 用引语归结全文,有画龙点睛的作用,使文章既生动,又有说服力.如: All of us wish for a bright future and hope to master a useful career. Those who persist in remaining idle will never fulfill their ambitions, "No pains,no gains" is a motto with much meaning. Meditate and live by it. 以"不劳不得"做总结,很好地归纳了上文,给人以警示. (5)首尾呼应法 在首尾两处点题,可以使段落的中心突出.如: China's reforms have brought China a lot of benefits and have changed Chinese people's life a great deal. A lively atmosphere has prevailed in all walks of fields throughout the country. The national economy has been thriving and national defense has ever been consolidated. In science and technology,quite a lot of achievements have been made. Certainly,the progress made in all fields has led to the raise of living standard for Chinese people. 首尾均强调了一系列有利于社会进步的改革给中国人的生活带来的改变,重点突出. (四)短文写作中常用的关联词 1.表示列举和举例 first of all,for one thing,for another,to begin with,first,second,next,in the first (second) place,furthermore,moreover,beyond that,also,besides,in addition,what is more,such as,finally; for example,for instance等. 2.表示原因 since,because (of),as,for,owing to,result from,due to,on account of,on the ground of,as a result of等. 3.表示时间顺序 at the same time,as soon as,so far,since,then,until,when,meanwhile,shortly,later,lately,after a while,at that time,before,earlier,presently,in the meantime,formerly等. 4.表示空间顺序 close to,close at hand(近在身旁),next to,down,far,beyond,against(对着),on the opposite side(相对的),opposite to,above,across,across from,around,at the bottom,before,behind,below,beneath,between,in the middle of,in the distance,in the center of,farther,on the left/right等. 5.表示重复 in other words,again,as has been pointed out,to repeat,as I have said above,once again,after all,indeed,in fact,truly,of course,chiefly,especially,certainly,actually,particularly,to be sure,above all,surely,most important of all,even worse,no doubt,needless to say等. 6.表示结果 so,then,therefore,thus,hence,consequently,as a result,accordingly,for this reason,as a consequence,on that account,it follows that等. 7.表示总结 to sum up,in summary,to summarize,in short,in brief,to be brief,in other words,on the whole,in conclusion,to conclude等. 8.表示对比和对照 (1)对照:but,however,yet,or,nevertheless,still,nonetheless,conversely,nor,rather,whereas,thought,on the one hand,on the other hand,on the contrary,by contrast with/to,in contrast (with/to),even though,instead,unlike,different from,instead (of),the opposite (of),unlike,although,while,but等. (2)对比:similarly,likewise,like,as,at the same time,in fact,too,in the same way,in a like manner,both,each,also,compared with等. (五)短文写作中的经典语义过渡的模式以及必备句型 考研英语写作的题材多数同我们日常生活相关,通常涉及事物间的比较,要求说明其相似性、相异性和事物之间的因果关系;有时要求考生分析事实,找出原因或解决问题的方法,或对一个问题提出个人看法等.所以考生在复习写作时,要尽可能熟悉和掌握表达这些关系的常用句型,这将对提高写作能力有较大帮助. 1.表示相似性的句型 ①Moral corruption(A)is to the State(B)as physical disease(C)is to an individual body(D).(A之于B犹如C之于D) ②Just as woods are indispensable to birds,so is the earth to human beings.(正如…,…也如此) ③As far as personality is concerned,Tom (A) and Peter (B) have almost everything in common.(A和B有共同之处) ④My hobby (A) is similar to his (B) in that we both like collecting records,foreign and domestic. (A与B相似) ⑤As the economies of all countries are closely interrelated no country can develop in self-seclusion. The same is true of China. (The same is true of. The same can be said of... 也是如此) 2.表示相异性的句型 ①Beijing (A) is populous and crowded,while Canberra (B) is just the opposite.(A与B正相反) ②China's condition (A) differs from ours (B) in that China has the largest population in the world. (A不同于B在于) ③While it may be true that basketball and volleyball share certain features,the excitement each arouses in the spectators is not the same.(…是不相同的) 3.表示权衡性的句型 ①It seems safe to say that the advantages of marriage outweigh the disadvantages of divorce.(利大于弊) ②Perhaps nothing can rival the pleasure from reading. (…是无与伦比的) ③There could be no doubt that job-hopping has its drawbacks as well as merits.(既有优点也有缺点) ④Men (A)may be superior to women(B) in physical affairs. Yet,there is no difference in intelligence.(A优于B) ⑤People's attitude towards drugs varies from person to person.(…是因人而异的) 4.表示过渡性的句型(承上启下,使新观点不至于显得突兀、武断) ①Some people argue as if it is a general truth that . But to be frank,I cannot agree with them for the following reasons. ②According to/As can be seen in figures/statistics /the findings/data released/provided by the government/an institute, . ③There are several/many causes/reasons for this dramatic/significant growth/change/decline/increase in . ④There are no less than three advantages in as rendered below. ⑤The reasons are chiefly as follows . ⑥Another reason why I advocate the attitude of is that. ⑦Last but not least, . ⑧What is more, . 5.表示倍数与比例关系的句型 近年来图表作文经常出现,考生需要熟悉和掌握一些常用的句型来解释图表、分析和表达数据间的倍数和比例关系: ①Asia ranks first both in area and in population among the seven Continents.Europe is second to Asia in population,but in area it is the last but one. ②We all hope that a country's population should be in proportion to its area, unfortunately the reality often goes against our will. ③A is a far larger university,being over three times as big as B. 6.引用图表内容时的过渡句型 图表式作文经常使用as从句做解释性描述的过渡,它的运用,可以使短文由图画的说明解释,陡然一转,由客观说到主观,由一般说到个体,过渡自然. ①This picture shows . At the beginning, ,as we can see in the upper half of the picture. However,the lower half of the picture shows that . ②As is revealed in the graph . ③As the survey results show . ④As we could find out later in this unit,his plan was not quite as he had expected. ⑤This table provides several important points of comparison between the two universities.As can be indicated in the table,the housing space for the staff of A in 1995 was 34 500 square meters,which nearly doubled the B's corresponding figure. 7.描述图表常用的概括性句型 这种句子通常用于开篇和结尾. ①This table provides,several important points of comparison between the two key universities. ②The two graphs depict the same thing seen in two different ways. The first diagram simply records . The second graph throws a new light on . ③The key findings taken from the surveys are as follows: . ④If drivers continue to drive more carefully and further strengthen their sense of safety,the rate of accidents can be expected to decline even more dramatically in the year 1998. 8.引论或得出结论的句型 ①As the proverb goes,It is quite understandable that . ②Along with the development of society more and more problems are brought to our attention,one of which is that . ③Admittedly,there are merits to both sides of the argument. ④Contrary to widely held belief,I believe that . ⑤Now,it is commonly believed /some people think that ,but I wonder whether . 9.表示转折的句型 ①On the surface of it,this may seem to be a good solution,but if thinking again,we would point out some drawbacks. ②At first thought,it may seem to be an attractive idea,but it does not bear closer analysis when we find . ③Superficially,it seems to be a sound solution,but when carefully weighing in the mind,we find that . ④A close inspection of these arguments would reveal how flimsy they are. ⑤The undeniable deficiency in this remark is that it is negligent of the bare fact that . ⑥However,we also cannot deny that . 10.表示解释、分析、引申的句型 ①One very strong argument for is that . ②It is an obvious fact that . ③One of the most important things about is that . ④A particularly notable case of this matter is . ⑤We may look into every possible reason,however,foremost reason for is . ⑥is mainly/ partly/ also responsible for the rise/increase/ decrease in . ⑦We may cite/quote/mention a single/common example of . ⑧A recent/nationwide study/survey/poll conducted/ taken at a university/ by scientists indicates/reveals/ suggests that . ⑨Of course,this will have some negative effects on . ⑩ is a case in point. 11.表示得出结论的句型 ①From what has been discussed above,we may safely draw the conclusion that . ②Taking into account all these factors,we may safely reach the conclusion that . ③Judging from all evidence offered,we may safely come to the conclusion that . ④All the evidence/analysis supports a (an) sound/ unshakable/just conclusion/ view that . 12.表示建议、采取行动的句型 ①It is necessary/ essential that effective actions/ quick steps/ proper measures should be taken to prevent the situation/ correct tendency / end phenomenon. ②There is little doubt that serious/ considerable/ special attention must be called /paid /devoted to the problem /shortage of . ③It is high time that we placed/put great/special/considerable emphasis on theimprovement/ development /increase of .
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第一部分英语知识运用部分命题的特点和规律 一、英语知识运用部分总体分析 2002年《大纲》将"完形填空"调整为"英语知识运用"之后明确规定:英语知识运用测试的要点是词汇、语法和结构. 英语知识运用采用多项选择完形填空(Multiple Choice Cloze Test)的形式来考查.完形填空(Cloze)又称综合填空或短文填空,出现于20世纪50年代西方语言测试的实践中,1956年被应用于外语测试.在我国用于英语测试则是从20世纪70年代开始的.完形填空是用来测试考生的基础知识和语言运用能力的一种题型,对考生的语法结构、词义搭配和阅读理解能力进行综合考查(measuring overall ability). 完形填空的设计和应用,是基于格式塔心理学(Gestalt Psychology)和心理语言学(Psycholinguistics)的理论:人们在感知、认知事物的时候,总是以整体信息为主的.尽管有时获得的信息并不十分完整,但人们会下意识地将不完整的部分补全,构成一副完整的图画来认知.举例来说,当我们看到图1和图2时,我们会自然地把它们分别看做是一个圆和一个三角形,而不是一段曲线和三个点. 图1 图2 同样,在语言表达和理解的过程中,也需要理解信息的整体.尽管其中有一些词或短语被抽去,但通过语段提供的冗余信息,人们仍然能够推知被抽去的信息,从而达到对文章的理解.根据这一原理,命题人使用完形填空这一种题型——从一篇短文中删去一些信息,留出空格,由考生补全——来考查语言知识和语言综合运用的能力. (一)英语知识运用部分命题的基本指导思想 英语知识运用部分命题的指导思想是:通过完形填空的形式不仅考查考生对于不同语境中规范的语言要素(包括词汇、表达方式和语法结构)的运用能力,而且还考查考生对语段特征(如连贯性和一致性等)的辨识能力.这就意味着"英语知识运用"部分的试题由过去注重对单句语言点的考查向对语篇能力(discourse competence)的考查转移,这一考查重心的转移要求考生能够对不同语境中语言使用的规范性、得体性和篇章特征有较强的辨识能力. (二)选材特点 英语知识运用部分的材料为一篇240-280词的文章,通过对近十年英语知识运用试题的分析可以看出,这部分试题在体裁上多以议论文为主,说明文为辅,而题材上逐渐趋于与现代社会生活密切相关的文章.详见下表. 年份 体裁 题材 主要内容 2000 议论文 经济 农民的生产和消费 2001 议论文 政治法律 政府对媒体炒作干扰司法公正进行立法限制 2002 说明文 社会生活 传媒技术的发展 2003 议论文 文化教育 对青少年的教育问题 2004 议论文 社会生活 对青少年犯罪原因的探讨 2005 说明文 科普 人类的嗅觉 2006 议论文 社会生活 无家可归者增多的现象 2007 议论文 政治历史 西班牙和葡萄牙前殖民地独立后面临的问题 2008 说明文 生物科学 高智商与遗传疾病 2009 议论文 从动物智商研究中得到的有关人类智力的启示 根据英语知识运用部分试题的命题原则和近年的命题趋势,可以发现这部分试题在选材上有以下一些特点: 第一,选材内容不会过于专业.避免让一部分人凭常识答题,否则,会影响测试的信度和效度.因此,含有大量专有名词、数量词和技术性词语的短文一般不会出现.题材多以社会生活、文化教育类为主,科普性文章有再出现的趋势,但仍以与人们生活密切相关的知识为主.题材有一定重复性,如98、99年以工业为主,03、04年以青少年问题为主. 第二,文章难度适中.一般情况下,对大部分考生来说,文章在没有进行删词以前读起来几乎没有困难. 第三,文章内部组织结构较为严密,无论是说明文还是议论文,多以总——分或总——分——总的形式出现.由于引语与短文其他部分的难度不会十分一致,所以一般不选用含有很多引语的文章. (三)试题的具体命制 (1)语法知识试题的命制."英语知识运用"部分考查考生对语法结构知识的实际运用能力.因此,在最后阶段的复习时,考生应当加强对一些基础性的语法知识的掌握,切忌只死记一些特殊的语法现象,因为命题专家不会对那些特殊的语法现象进行考查. (2)词汇试题的命制.词汇是考查重点,试题数量一般在12~15题之间,测试的知识主要包括:短语搭配、近形词、近义词、惯用法等.新的趋势是加重了了对词汇的得体性、规范性及同一词汇的特殊意义的考查.要求考生在实践中运用恰当的词汇,选择准确的词汇. (3)篇章结构试题的命制.试题数量一般在2~3题之间.主要涉及以下几点:①句与句之间的逻辑关系;②某个意群的整体意思;③文章的整体结构;④作者对某一问题的观点、态度、口气.在试题的设计上,主要反映在表示逻辑关系的连词、副词的考查上.考生要注意的是:一些题看似是考查词汇,实际上需要先根据上下文推断出这一意群的整体意思,然后才能在此基础上判断四个选项中哪一个更符合.解此类试题的关键是:一,利用上下文解题.二,关注句际之间的逻辑关系. 二、英语知识运用部分的解题思路与技巧 英语知识运用部分主要考查考生的逻辑思维、推理判断和对各种语言现象的综合运用能力.考生在解答该部分试题时,应掌握相当的词汇量,具备一定的阅读能力,并能够正确、恰当地运用语法和词汇知识.它在形式上是对每个空格所给出的四个选项做出正确选择,实际上是测试考生对整篇短文的理解和对语言知识的综合运用能力.它非常强调语境,即上下文的联系,因此,选择正确与否往往取决于对上下文的理解是否准确以及对语言知识的运用是否恰当. 解答英语知识运用部分的试题需要一定的技巧,其中把握好答题的思路与节奏是在考场上正常发挥乃至超常发挥的前提.根据测试学的原理及解题经验,我们提出"一个原则,三步走"的答题思路,供考生参考. "一个原则"就是:紧跟文章的思路进行分析、选择,而不是按照自己的思路.要使自己的思路与文章的思路保持一致,而不是使文章的思路随着自己的思路走. "三步走"指解答过程分三步走: 第一,迅速浏览一遍全文,弄清文章主题.知道文章要说明或介绍的是什么. 第二,逐句阅读文章,仔细分析,认真填空.弄清句子意思与结构以及句与句、句群与句群之间的关系. 第三,作答后,再通读一遍全文,看是否通顺合理.注意句与句之间,段与段之间是否一致、连贯. 综观历届考生的答题情况,最典型的失误是在解题方法上出现问题.部分考生在答题时只关注要填入词汇、短语的句子,而不对短文的内容进行总体的把握,"只见树木,不见森林",其结果是:第一,理解上出现严重的偏差,导致选择错误;第二,延长了答题时间,因为答题的线索有时就隐藏在上下文中.因此,考生在完成所有问题之后,还应该通读全文,在宏观上检查并核实所确定的每一个选择能否使短文的内容与结构完整,在微观上看每一个试题的选择是否都有充分的依据.只有这样才能获取高分. 下面就英语知识运用测试的主要内容谈一下解题思路. (一)语法结构知识 语法知识是理解英语的基础.通过对历年试题的分析可以看出,单纯考查语法知识题的比重并不是很大,这是要体现《大纲》注重考查考生的英语交际能力,鼓励考生用听、说、读、写的实践代替单纯的语法知识学习的测试导向.但这并不意味着对考生语法掌握程度的要求降低了,因为只有对语法知识有较好的掌握,才能在实际的语言运用环境中,识别各种语法现象,对文章进行理解并做出正确的判断.下面就重点语法内容加以总结,供考生参考. 1. 主谓一致关系 主谓一致(SubjectVerb Agreement)指谓语动词要与主语的中心词语在"人称"和"数"的方面保持一致.这是在解题过程中需要时刻注意的.解答这类问题的关键是要找准主语的中心词语. Example 1 The novels of John Cheever to a literary tradition that is concerned primarily with manners. [A] belongs [B]belong [C]is belonged [D]are belonged belong是不及物动词,不能用于被动语态,首先排除C和D.本句的中心主语是the novels(复数),所以此题的正确选项是B. 2. 虚拟语气 在英语中,由于说话人的意图不同,动词的表现形式也随之不同,这就需要用不同的"语气"来表达.英语中有三种语气: (1)陈述语气(the Indicative Mood)用来陈述事实.如: The teacher is very popular with his students. (2)祈使语气(the Imperative Mood)提出请求、命令等.如: Please open the door. (3)虚拟语气(the Subjunctive Mood)表达主观愿望和假设的情况.如: If I were you, I would throw it away. 所谓虚拟,简单地说,就是真实情况并非如此.由于虚拟语气历来是英语学习中的一个难点,尤其是它还有一些特殊形式和用法,所以也可能成为考点. Example 2 Had they examined the question over a much longer period, 1 over the whole life cycle, they 2 reached a different conclusion. 1. *[A] particularly [B] exclusively [C] preferably [D] precisely 2. [A] must have [B] will have [C] may have [D] would have 首先根据"Had they examined the question..."得出这是一个省略if的虚拟条件句.在表示过去情况的虚拟条件句中,从句中的谓语用had+过去分词,主句中的谓语用would have + 过去分词.所以,第2题应该选择D. 3. 非限定性动词 非限定性动词是动词的非谓语形式,主要指不定式(the Infinitive)、分词(the Participle)和动名词(the Gerund).非限定性动词的使用功能多样,且容易混淆,所以它们历来是各种英语考试中的重点. Example 3 We did make our comforts and discomforts 1 , but basically others 2 our experiences to us. We were virtually helpless and 3 the mercy of others, usually our parents. As we grew older, increased intellectual development resulted in increased behavioral options' 4 available to us. 1 [A]knowing [B]known [C]know [D]to know 2 [A]distributed *[B]dictated [C]allocated [D]ordered 3 [A]with [B]in *[C]at [D]on 4 [A]became [B]become [C]becoming [D]to become 第1题中make在作为表示"致使"意义的动词时,其后的动词及其逻辑主语是被动关系,所以跟在其后的动词要用过去分词形式,如He was trying to make himself understood.所以此题应选B. 第4题考查动名词的用法.根据上文,resulted in后面应是一个名词、名词词组或相当于名词的成分.只有选项C能构成一个前面带有名词词组所有格的动名词结构,这里的increased behavioral options是become在逻辑上的主语.所以此题应选C. Example 4 There was a big drop during the sunspot years of 1986 and 1987, and the number of people 1 from diseases caused by a lymphocyte deficiency 2 doubled during the tremendous solar explosion of February 1986. 1[A]suffered [B]suffer [C]suffering [D]to suffer 第1题考查了现在分词做定语的知识.在and连接的后一并列从句中, 1 from diseases caused by a lymphocyte deficiency 2 这个成分是修饰限定主语the number of people,起定语作用的.在四个选项中虽然选项A、C、D都有做定语的功能,然而从上下文的语意以及三个选项各自表示的时态、语态功能来判断,the number of people是suffer的逻辑主语,是动作suffer的发动者,所以此题选C项suffering最合适. Example 5 Experts speculate that hardships might prompt some Russian scientists their know-how on the black market. [A]to sell [B]to selling [C]sell [D]sold to 此题应选A.prompt后接不定式构成prompt to do sth.. 4定语从句 定语从句有限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句之分.限制性定语从句与其先行词有着不可分割的关系,如果缺少了从句,先行词便不能明确地表示所指对象.例如: This is the car (that) I bought last year. 而非限制性定语从句和它的先行词之间的关系就比较松散,它并不是先行词不可缺少的组成部分,而仅仅是对先行词的一种补充说明.例如: Im seeing the manager tomorrow, when he will be back from New York. 从对历年的研究生英语试题的分析来看,在英语知识运用题中主要以选择适当的关系代词或关系副词的形式来考查这部分知识. Example 6 When the work is well done, a 1 of accident-free operations is established 2 time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum. (1999年第44题) 1[A]regulation *[B]climate [C]circumstance [D]requirement 2[A]where [B]how [C]what [D]unless 第2题的正确选项是A.where在这里引导一个定语从句"where time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum",先行词是climate.在这里where相当于in which,即in the climate.本句意思是:安全规划实施得好,一种无事故操作的工作环境就会建立起来,这样因工伤造成的时间损失将降至最低限度.而how(如何,怎样,怎么)和unless(除非)在语法上可行,但意义上不通.what(什么)无论从语法还是意义上都讲不通. 5句子的平衡(并列连词及词组) 英语中经常用并列连词和词组来保持句子的平衡,常见的有:and, but, or, as well as, not only...but also..., neither...nor..., either...or...等.解答这类题时还要注意毗邻原则,即谓语应与其相邻的名词或代词保持一致. Example 7 Concerns were raised 1 witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to 2 guilty verdicts. (2001年第49题) 1[A]what [B]when [C]which [D]that 2[A]assure [B]confide *[C]ensure [D]guarantee 第1题选D.该题考查同位语从句和句子平衡的知识.that引导的同位语从句做concerns的同位语,对它进行进一步的解释.that引导的同位语从句本来应该直接跟在concerns的后面,但因为句子太长,会显得句子头重脚轻,从而使句子失去平衡,所以放在了后面. 6代词的用法 代词在英语中的使用很广泛,并且形式多样,考查代词也成为检测考生英语语言水平的一个重要考点.在近年的研究生英语考试中,代词部分主要考查不定代词和关系代词的用法(关于关系代词的题例讲解请参见定语从句部分的讲解). Example 8 A variety of activities should be organized 1 participants can remain active as long as they want and then go on to 2 else without feeling guilty and without letting the other participants 3 . (2003年第36题) 1[A]if only [B]now that *[C]so that [D]even if 2[A]everything [B]anything [C]nothing [D]something 3[A]off *[B]down [C]out [D]alone 第2题考查考生对不定代词的用法和区分能力.A项everything不能与else连用.B项anything 与else构成词组表示"别的什么",但其中有"别的以外任何事情"的含义.从上下文的语意来看,此处用anything不妥.C项nothing 一般用在nothing else than(只不过,仅有)中.D项something 与else 构成词组表示"别的事情",用在肯定句中,从语法和前后语意关系上来看,D项是正确选项. (二)词汇 词汇是表达思想的最基本要素.根据《大纲》精神,"英语知识运用"不但要求考生掌握所规定的词汇,而且要求考生在实践中运用恰当的词汇,选择准确的词汇.这就是说,学习词汇不能只记词义,更重要的是学会恰当地运用.词汇考查的重点是近义词的辨析以及固定词组和习惯搭配.根据对近十年英语知识运用题的统计分析,词汇题平均约占英语知识运用试题总题量的70%,是考试命题的重点.其中动词和名词是历年考查的重中之重.我们把近十年的英语知识运用中的词汇考查点整理如下,供考生参考. 年份 考点 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 动词 3 7 3 4 5 7 8 6 7 6 名词 2 5 5 6 4 1 1 1 2 2 形容词 1 2 4 3 2 5 1 2 2 4 副词 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 3 1 固定用法 1 1 3 1 2 0 1 1 4 4 词汇题 百分比 80% 75% 75% 75% 60% 75% 60% 65% 90% 85% 从上表可知,掌握好词汇知识对于考生做好"英语知识运用"这部分考题十分重要.而根据历年考生的反馈,英语知识运用部分之所以一直是考生的弱项,很大原因在于,考生对词汇的掌握不够扎实,没有达到《大纲》对能力考核的目标.这主要是考生在词汇学习的观念上,受到社会上一些"速成"、"速记"法的影响,对词汇的掌握仅仅局限于机械地背诵词汇表,只记忆词的一两个意思,至于这个词的其他语意和用法并不了解和掌握,造成考生对词汇的掌握是只知其一不知其二.恰恰是这个误区,导致了考生在做"英语知识运用"部分试题时出现很多"拿不准"的现象,在考场上由于时间紧迫就盲目地选了一个,造成不必要的失分.词汇学习的目标是要达到能够正确、恰当地运用词汇,记住词义只是达到这一目标的前提.所以在这里我们建议考生养成良好的学习习惯,从词汇运用的高级层次上来学习英语. 在解答此类题时,着眼点主要有以下两个: 1根据上下文语义做出选择 Example 1 Many professions are associated with a particular stereotype. The 1 image of a writer, for instance, is 2 a slightly crazy-looking person, locked in an attic, writing 3 furiously for days 4 . 1 [A]historic [B]antique [C]senior [D]classic 2*[A]in [B]of [C]with [D]for 3 [A]away [B]off *[C]on [D]down 4 [A]on finish [B]on final [C]on end [D]on stop 此例中的第1题的正确答案是D.题中第一句中的a particular stereotype和人们对作家的印象的描述a slightly crazy-looking person, locked in an attic, writing 3 furiously for days 4 为选择答案提供了依据.这是一种 "classic(典型的)"作家形象. 再看第4题.首先选项A、D被排除,因为没有此词组.那我们是选择B项on final (最后),还是C项on end (连续)呢?根据上文语境,作家把自己锁在阁楼里,日复一日地写(writing 3 furiously for days ), 所以这个动作应该是不停地,连续地,此题选C. 从词义方面着眼,在几个考查方式中,特别提醒考生注意的是常用词的偏用义的考查.命题者有时会用常见词汇的生僻意思来设计考题,如1999年完型填空的第2题和第3题,请详见历年真题解析部分.因此,在学习词汇时,尤其是一些常用词汇,要尽量记住它的各种含义,而且最好是记住该词的英文解释. 2 根据固定搭配做出选择 Example 2 This constant need to prove that one is as good as, 1 not better than, one's fellow-competitor creates constant 2 and stress, the 3 causes of unhappiness and illness. 1 [A]while *[B]if [C]when [D]lest 2 [A]casualty [B]fatality [C]concern [D]anxiety 3*[A]very [B]suitable [C]one [D]multiple 第2题考查词义及搭配.正确答案是D.这句话的大意是:他们需要不断地证明自己与其竞争者一样优秀,因而造成了持续的紧张与焦虑,这也正是他们的苦恼与疾病的根源.A. 伤亡,B. 不幸,天命,C. 关心,关注,D. 焦虑,这四个选项中只有anxiety符合上下文语意,并且stress通常与anxiety搭配使用. Example 3 ...in that year, over a million couples 1 their marriages dissolved, often at high financial and social2. 1.[A]let [B]wanted [C]wished *[D]had 2.[A]fare [B]duty [C]charge [D]cost 此题考查考生对固定搭配的掌握程度.线索词是at,只有cost可与at搭配,所以此题选D.duty与on, in, off搭配;charge的搭配是in (the) charge of, under the charge of. 总的来说,熟记和掌握常用词组及习惯搭配,熟悉词汇的意义并掌握其用法,是做好此题的关键. (三)语篇分析 语篇分析能力是英语知识运用测试的另一个考查重点.在英语知识运用试题中主要考查考生能否理清文章的语意结构和语意逻辑关系. 语篇就是通过一定的衔接手段将一些意义相关的句子按照逻辑组织在一起的语意整体.由词组句,由句成篇.在这一过程中,词语的使用和逻辑关系起了重要作用.我们把它们分别称为"词汇纽带"和"逻辑纽带".如果我们能够迅速、准确地找出文章的"词汇纽带"和"逻辑纽带",也就能够准确地理解文章大意,把握作者思路. 1 词汇纽带 词汇纽带主要指在一个语篇当中同义词、反义词的使用和关键词的重复.因为当作者围绕一个话题论述时,表达的意义都是相关的,所以不可避免地要使用同义词、反义词和重复关键词以保持文章的线索.知道了语篇的这一特点,我们在做英语知识运用试题时,恰当地运用这一技巧将有助于迅速找出文章主题,并为解题提供了宝贵线索. 我们以2001年全国研究生入学考试英语试卷中的短文为例,列出该文各段的主题词,以便于考生掌握利用词汇纽带找出文章主题的技巧. government,ban,payments to witnesses,newspapers,buy up,people involved in,cases; legal controls over the press,bill,payments to witnesses,control the amount; self regulation,sufficient control; media,privacy controls,legislation,judges; the Human Rights Bill,privacy,public figures,protect; Press freedoms, judges; Witness payments,witnesses,received payments,telling stories to newspapers,exaggerate their stories, guilty verdicts. 根据以上词语,文章的主题一目了然:政府对媒体炒作干扰司法公正进行立法限制.同时,文章的结构也很清楚了. 下面我们结合两个例题分析这类试题的答题思路. Example 1 Manpower Inc, with 560 000 workers, is the world's largest temporary employment agency. Every morning, its people into the offices and factories of America, seeking a day's work for a day's pay. (1997年第41题) [A]swarm [B]stride [C]separate [D]slip 此题的答案是A.提供线索的关键词是with 560 000 workers和largest.第二句又提到了这些临时工人到各个公司和工厂上班的情况.可以想像56万工人每天早晨上班的情形——人们涌入各个公司和工厂.Swarm一词正好描述了这样一个场面.其他的词都不准确. Example 2 At the beginning of the century, medical scientists made a surprising discovery: that we are 1 not just of flesh and blood but also of time. They were able to 2 that we all have an internal "body clock" which 3 the rise and fall of our body energies, making us different from one day to the 4 . These forces became known as biorhythms; they create the 5 in our everyday life. 1*[A]built [B]shaped [C]molded [D]grown 2*[A]demonstrate [B]illustrate [C]present [D]propose 3 [A]designates [B]fluctuates [C]calculates *[D]regulates 4 [A]second [B]latter *[C]other [D]next 5 [A]"ups" and "downs" [B]"goods" and "bads" [C]"pros" and "cons" [D]"highs" and "lows" 在解答第5题时,考生应注意上下文的提示,特别是同义表述.这一段的主要内容是人体生物钟(body clock)的发现,及生物钟对人体的影响.如果我们注意到上文中的the rise and fall of our body energies,就可得知生物钟影响人体的能量节律的起落.这样第5题空格处应选一个与"起落"有关的词.而A选项通常用于描述人生的沉浮.正确答案D选项恰当地描述了这一高低变化.the rise and fall of our body energies和"highs" and "lows" in our everyday life正好是一对同义表述. 2 逻辑纽带 逻辑纽带包括表示转折、引申、列举、因果、对比等逻辑关系的过渡词,通常是连词、连接性副词和词组.英语知识运用部分很注重考查考生的语篇意识,因此正确运用表示逻辑关系的过渡词是历年来的一个重要的考查内容.下面列举出常见的逻辑关系过渡词: 转折however(2002年第29题、1998年第47题、2007年第9题、2008年第14题), yet, but, anyhow, anyway, nevertheless, while(2005年第1题), whereas (1997年第48题,2005年第9题),instead, instead of( 2000年第41题); 递进besides, further, moreover, most important, in addition, furthermore, too, also(2005年第16题), and then, again, indeed(2006年第1题); 条件、让步if, only if(2000年第42题),in spite of, despite, though, although(2002年第31题,2006年第7题), even so, even though (1997年第44题), rather, after all, regardless, while(2006年第14题); 原因、 结果because(2004年第22题,2003年第24题), since, as (1997年第42题), for, due to, so, therefore, thus, hence, in that , accordingly, consequently, as a result, as a consequence, so that (2003年第35题), to this end; 比较、对比likewise, at the same time, in the same way, in comparison, in contrast, like, as, just as, conversely, on the contrary (2003年第38题),while(2007年第12题); 列举、举例first, second, in the first place, in the second place, next, another, finally, still, namely, that is, for instance(2009年第14题), for example(2003年第28题), as an example, specifically, in particular; 时间关系before(2001年第36题),after, until, till,meanwhile,subsequently. 强调certainly, indeed, above all(2009年第18题),surely, most important, in fact, no doubt, truly, obviously 以上这些连词、连接性副词和词组能够显示出作者的思路及文章意义重心的变换.因此,掌握逻辑过渡词,是把握作者思维脉络和篇章结构的重要手段. 下面我们举一个例子简单地说明一下. Example 3 It can, of course, be argued that though the vast majority of people contribute to the funds of social security equally, working-class persons are more likely to receive social security benefits than upper-class persons. This is true for those benefits which can be classed as being for forms of diswelfare, to use Titmusss term, i.e. a form of monetary compensation for the hardship they suffer through the operation of the social and economic system-benefits for industrial disability, unemployment and illness as well as supplementary benefits. It is not, 1 , true of retirement pensions and they after all account for at least half the expenditure of social security widely defined. Since retirement pensions are paid to all who have paid the necessary number of contributions they involve a negative form of vertical redistribution of income—from the poor to the rich— 2 retired persons of higher income groups live longer than those of lower income groups. 1. [A] furthermore [B] therefore [C] however [D] otherwise 2. [A] though [B] if [C] because [D] while 第1题是一个比较典型的逻辑关系题.考生只有把握上文和下文的内容,弄清上下文之间的语义关系,才能选出正确答案.这段选文主要是讲社会保障金在不同收入人群中的分配所引起的争议——低收入人群比高收入人群更有可能得到社会保障金.第2句This is true for those benefits which...和第3句It is not, 1 , true of...分别陈述了两种情况.而第3句在内容上与第2句构成了一种转折的语义关系.所以此题选C. however.而furthermore表示递进,therefore表示因果,otherwise表示补充,这三个选项显然都不合适. 我们再来看第2题.此题也需要对上下文有一个总体的把握才能做对.前面一句是说退休金发给所有已经缴纳一定款额的人,这样收入低的人们就陷入了一种消极的收入垂直再分配——从低收入人群流向高收入人群.我们再看空格后的一句,高收入的退休者比低收入的退休者活得长.很显然,后一句是前一句的原因,它们之间是因果关系.所以C. because为正确选项. 3 段落主题句的作用 在解题时可以利用短文第一句和最后一句把握文章主题,找出答题线索.通过对近十年英语知识运用短文首尾两句话的分析与总结发现,虽然只是短短的两句,却包含着非常丰富的信息. 文章开头一句(有时是主题句,有时不是主题句)往往会或多或少地包含以下信息: what→涉及的事件/事物及其状况或特征 where→地点 when→时间 who→相关的人物 why→相关原因 how→有关的论点 下面是1999年~2008年研究生入学考试英语试卷中使用过的短文的首句,我们把其中分别包含的信息整理如下: Research on animal intelligence always makes me wonder just how smart humans are.(2009年what,how) The idea that some groups of people may be more intelligent than others is one of those hypotheses that dare not speak its name. (2008年what,how); By 1830 the former Spanish and Portuguese colonies had become independent nations.(2007年when,who, how); The homeless make up a growing percentage of America's population.(2006年who ,how); The human nose is an underrated tool.(2005年what,how); Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinguency(crimes committed by young people)focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. (2004年what,how); Teachers need to be aware of the emotional, intellectual, and physical changes that young adults experience. (2003年who,how); Comparisons were drawn between the development of television in the 20th century and the diffusion of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. (2002年what, how, when); The government is to ban payments to witnesses by newspapers seeking to buy up people involved in prominent cases 1 the trial of Rosemary West. (2001年who,what,how); If a farmer wishes to succeed, he must try to keep a wide gap between his consumption and his production. (2000年who,why,how); Industrial safety does not just happen. (1999年what,how); 从第一句话,我们就能知道这篇短文大概要谈论的内容. 我们再来看看这十篇短文末尾一句的特点.作为全文最后一句,作者通常会把自己的观点加以总结或强化,构成首尾呼应.这样一来,文章保持了一致和连贯,同时也为解题提供了依据. 尾句通常包含以下信息: conclusion→结论 suggestion→建议或提示 summary→对全文的概括或总结 result→事件发展的结果 influence→事情的影响或后果 下面是历年研究生入学考试英语试卷中使用过的短文的最后一句: _20?? the results are inconclusive.(2009年influence) His argument is that the unusual history of these people has 19 them to unique evolutionary pressures that have resulted in this 20 state of affairs.(2008年conclusion) Egalitarian sentiments were often tempered by fears that the mass of the population was 20 self-rule and democracy.(2007年conclusion) As Edward Blotkowsk... puts it, "There has to be 20 of programs. What we need is a package deal."(2006年conclusion) The brain finds it best to keep smell receptors 19 for unfamiliar and emergency signals 20 the smell of smoke,which might indicate the danger of fire.(2005年conclusion) All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, 20 a direct causal relationship has not yet been established. (2004年conclusion,summary) 38 they can help students acquire a sense of commitment by 39 for roles that are within their 40 and their attention spans and by having clearly stated rules. (2003年suggestion) And generalizations have proved difficult. (2002年conclusion ) Concerns were raised 19 witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to 20 guilty verdicts. (2001年result) Naturally he will try to borrow money at a low 9 of interest, but loans of this kind are not 10 obtainable. (2000年result,suggestion) This may mean the difference between operating at 10 or at a loss. (1999年influence,suggestion) 由此可见,抓住首尾两句是对文章从语篇层面进行总体把握的关键. 综上所述,考生在做英语知识运用题时应有一个整体意识,对全文内容进行总体把握.英语知识运用是对运用英语的能力进行综合考查,其对语法知识、词汇运用和语篇能力的考查是交织在一起的.我们遇到一道考题,有时不能简单地说,它是考语法或是考词汇的,往往需要我们运用语法和词汇两方面的知识才能够解答.因此,做好英语知识运用题是建立在能够熟练运用、融会贯通语法、词汇和语篇知识的基础之上的. 第二部分阅读理解A部分命题的特点和规律 阅读理解A部分试题主要是考查考生对英语词汇、短语、句型等习惯表达方式,尤其是对出现在篇章中的语言知识和语言技能的掌握情况.从另一方面来说,它也包含了对英语国家和世界其他国家的政治、经济、文化、历史、社会等背景以及科技发展动态、热门话题乃至西方人的思维、交流方式等非语言性知识和学习能力方面的考查.因此,阅读理解A部分试题是一个综合性很强的能力测试试题. 阅读能力一直是各种英语考试考查的重点.在全国硕士研究生入学考试中阅读理解的A部分占了整个试卷分值的40%,而且其他部分与阅读理解也密切相关.英译汉以它为基础.完形填空只有理解整篇文章的意思才能选对答案.分析典型范文又是写作的基础.此外,掌握外语最重要的两个因素——词汇量和语感,都是主要通过阅读获得的.因此考生要在考研英语中获得成功,阅读理解是关键. 一、阅读理解A部分命题的基本指导思想 1《大纲》对阅读理解A部分的评价目标 命题小组在设计试题时,一方面要在试题中考查考生是否能够读懂不同类型的文字材料(生词量不超过所读材料总词汇量的3%,包括信函、书报和杂志上的文章),而且还考查考生是否能够读懂与本人学习或工作有关的文献、技术说明、产品介绍等.根据所读材料,考生应该能够:(1)理解主旨要旨;(2)理解文中的具体信息;(3)理解文中的概念性含义;(4)进行有关的判断、推理和引申;(5)根据上下文推测生词的词义;(6)理解文章的总体结构以及上下文之间的关系;(7)理解作者的意图、观点或态度;(8)区分论点和论据. 2阅读理解A部分命题的基本原则 试题质量的优劣关系到考试是否达到预期目的,因此命制试题是整个考试的中心环节.命题小组在命制试题时必须遵循以下基本原则: (1)试题应该严格按照考试大纲的要求进行命题,即按照考试大纲规定的评价目标和试卷结构进行命题.命题内容不超过大纲的评价目标,题型和题量也要严格按照大纲的规定.在选取阅读理解A部分的文章时,要注意文章的选材范围和难度,力图让考生在充分理解文章的基础上对问题做出正确的回答,同时要使试题具有适当的难度和较高的效度、信度和区分度. (2)试题指向性必须清楚、准确、周密,易于理解,不出怪题、偏题.试题应该无科学性错误和避免不健康的、带有各种偏见的语言材料.答案要明确、合理、惟一. (3)在命制阅读理解A部分试题时,应该特别注意以下四个方面:第一,必须以考查获得信息为目的,不以考查语法或词汇为目的.当然考查考生通过上下文猜测词义的能力还是必要的.第二,应该避免出只根据一般常识而不用阅读文章就能得出答案的题目.第三,以考查文章提供的主信息为重点,考查考生挖掘文章中的信息能力为目的,命制考查多种层次、多种范畴信息的题目.第四,考查点对语言材料内容的覆盖面应该尽可能全面,这是阅读理解A部分试题命制的最重要的原则. (4)题干和选项的命制应该遵循的几个原则如下: 首先,关于题干的命制.第一,题干应仅描述一个单一的问题,最好是一个问句或一个不完全的陈述句.题干和选项皆不宜过长,都要简洁、清楚,考点明确,尽量减少不必要的词语.在各选项中共同使用的文字或术语应该反映在题干上.第二,题干和选项中不应含有与所考查内容无关的材料.尽量避免在题干中使用否定词.一旦在题干中出现了否定词,应该特别予以强调,如用黑体或者全大写.第三,题干与正确选项应避免使用相同的修饰词语,以防给考生提供选择答案的线索.第四,题干与每一个选项的搭配都应该在逻辑上、形式上、语气上完整无缺.命制试题时不能只留心题干与正确选项的搭配和表述,而忽视与干扰项的搭配,使考生得到暗示.各选项必须互不包容,否则,他们间的逻辑关系就会暗示正确选项,而使该题失去其应有的效度. 其次,关于备选项的命制.第一,各选项的长度、难度和语言结构应该大致相同.因为如果在命制这类试题时,命题者为使正确项绝对正确,致使其长度或结构异于其他选项,那么这些有异选项往往会成为考生乱猜的对象.第二,各干扰项要有迷惑性,才能起到适当的干扰作用.一方面干扰项不能错得太明显,否则形同虚设,反而使考生比较容易利用排除法找到正确答案;另一方面,大部分考生都选择某一干扰项也不理想.第三,同一个题目的选项的排列应按同一原则、同一逻辑顺序、同一规律和方向进行.例如可以按照时间的先后、数值的大小等规律排列.各题应该大致按从易到难的顺序排列.因为考生在临场应试时有个逐渐适应的过程.这样的排列会使他们稳定情绪,顺利进入正常的心理状态.试卷中正确选项字母序号(如[A],[B],[C],[D])出现的次数应该大致相等,这样可避免某些考生因只猜某一选项而"幸运地"获取高分的可能性. 最后,关于干扰项的特点.通过对历年考研真题的分析和研究,我们总结了干扰项的如下特点:第一,看似合理,实则以偏概全、断章取义.要么利用在文章中没有提到的生活常识编造选项;要么把文章中的事实和细节当主旨,把片面的、次要的观点当成主要观点.因此考生一定要从文中找依据、找答案,"合理项"不一定就是正确选项.在主旨题和主要观点题中,应该排除细节干扰,把握文章的主题.第二,偷梁换柱,张冠李戴.要么对原句中的细微处做了改动,要么截取原文中有的词语或类似的结构进行编造.要么在备选项中把因说成果、把别人的观点或作者反对的观点说成是作者的观点.因此考生要注意,过于相似的选项不一定正确,除非它的程度、范围等都与原文完全一致.考生要注意:"原词越多,对的可能性也就越小".第三,用常规含义代替偏用词义.在英语语言中,许多词或短语存在多义的现象,考生如果只掌握其常用的基本词义是不够的.在阅读实践中,更不能用已掌握的常用词义去代替偏用词义,从而导致对词或句意的误解或费解.命题者在命制词义句意题时,就通常把要考查的词或句意的常规含义作为干扰项以麻痹考生.因此,考生必须根据上下文推测其在特定语境下的含义.第四,过度引申.备选项虽然是从原文中推理引申出来的,但是却超出了文章允许的范围.考生切勿过度发挥,一切以原文为本. 二、阅读理解A部分文章的选择 阅读理解A部分的文章自2002年起改为四篇,每篇由四个至六个段落构成(也有例外,如:2002年第四篇共九段).每篇的长度控制在400~500个单词左右. 1题材的选取 从历年试题命制的情况看,主要是西方国家尤其是美、英、加和日本等国广泛关注的社会话题和热点问题.其内容包罗万象,社会生活类文章在命题中占据了绝大部分,带有普及性质的自然科学和科技方面的文章以及商业经济文章基本上每年都会涉及.命题所选文章的题材虽然广泛,但是按照一般的命题原则,题目的内容应该以不超出短文所给的为限,考生仅凭文章提供的信息就可以做出正确的判断.但是这并不意味着,宽广的知识与阅读理解A部分无关,相反,考生如果平时注意积累这方面的知识,则会大大地提高考试成绩. 历年题材分配如下: 2000年~2009年 社会生活、伦理 科普 商业经济 历史文化教育 合计 14 9 11 8 百分比 34% 21% 26% 19% 2文章的来源 所选文章多来自较新的英文资料,能很好的反映当代英语语言的特点. 社会生活和文化教育的文章主要来源于:Newsweek(新闻周刊),Time(时代周刊),The Washington Post(华盛顿邮报),USA Today(今日美国),The Times (泰晤士报),The Guardian(卫报)和wwwusnewscom(美国新闻在线). 科普类文章主要来源于:National Geographic(国家地理杂志),Scientific American(科学美国人),Science(科学杂志),New Scientists(新科学家), Discovery(探索杂志),Nature(自然). 商业经济类文章主要来源于:Business Week(商业周刊),The Economist(经济学家杂志)和Wall Street Journal(华尔街杂志). 其他:Telegraph(英国电信日报),Independent(独立日报)和International Herald Tribune(国际先驱论坛). 3文章的体裁 从历年命制的试题看,被选取的文章的体裁绝大多数为议论性的、评论性的和报道性的;多为分析论证的文章,很少有纯抒发情感和描写风景的文学篇章.这同攻读硕士学位研究生期间将面对的大量概括性强、抽象思维为主的材料有关.简言之,主要有论说文、说明文和新闻报道. 清楚了解考研文章的体裁特点,有助于考生把握文章结构,理清作者阐述脉络,从而轻松解题. 议论文的特点是:(1)写作目的是陈述观点或表明态度;(2)文章围绕一个中心展开,各个段落之间关系紧密,无论是反证还是正面论述,都分别是从不同的角度和侧面阐述这一中心;(3)每一段也是围绕一个中心,段落内部句子之间关系紧密. 说明文的特点是以事实为主,观点为辅.对于此类文章,细节题目较多,考生应着重把握具体信息的真伪、程度和作者的态度. 三、各类题型的特点及解答技巧 (一)主旨题 该类题型在历年题型中出现的频率极高,每年必出.它考查了考生综合、概括、归纳和分析问题的能力,要求考生通过对文章的阅读,迅速把握文章或段落的主题中心.主旨题可分为文章主旨和段落主旨两种.命题模式如下: 1文章主旨题 (1)The passage is mainly about . (2)What is the main point the author makes in the passage? (3)Which of the following best reflects the main idea of the passage? (4)What is the main topic for this passage? (5)The proper subject of this article is . (6)The best title for this passage might be . (7)What the author tries to suggest may best be interpreted as . (8)The passage was written to explain . 2段落主旨题 (1)From the first (2nd, 3rd, 4th,etc) paragraph, we learn that . (2)From the last (1st, 2nd,etc) paragraph the conclusion can be drawn that . (3)We learn from the first (last,etc)paragraph that . 3隐蔽的文章主旨题 (1)From the passage we learn (infer) that . (2)What can be inferred from the passage? (3)What the author tries to suggest may be interpreted as . Example Much of the language used to describe monetary policy, such as "steering the economy to a soft landing" or "a touch on the brakes", makes it sound like a precise science. Nothing could be further from the truth. The link between interest rates and inflation is uncertain. And there are long, variable lags before policy changes have any effect on the economy. Hence the analogy that likens the conduct of monetary policy to driving a car with a blackened windscreen, a cracked rear-view mirror and a faulty steering wheel. Given all these disadvantages, central bankers seem to have had much to boast about of late. Average inflation in the big seven industrial economies fell to a mere 23% last year, close to its lowest level in 30 years, before rising slightly to 25% this July. This is a long way below the double-digit rates which many countries experienced in the 1970s and early 1980s. It is also less than most forecasters had predicted. In late 1994 the panel of economists which The Economist polls each month said that America's inflation rate would average 35% in 1995. In fact, it fell to 26% in August, and is expected to average only about 3% for the year as a whole. In Britain and Japan inflation is running half a percentage point below the rate predicted at the end of last year. This is no flash in the pan; over the past couple of years, inflation has been consistently lower than expected in Britain and America. Economists have been particularly surprised by favourable inflation figures in Britain and the United States, since conventional measures suggest that both economies, and especially America's, have little productive slack. America's capacity utilisation, for example, hit historically high levels earlier this year, and its jobless rate (56% in August) has fallen below most estimates of the natural rate of unemployment—the rate below which inflation has taken off in the past. Why has inflation proved so mild? The most thrilling explanation is, unfortunately, a little defective. Some economists argue that powerful structural changes in the world have up-ended the old economic models that were based upon the historical link between growth and inflation.(1997年Passage 5) From the passage we learn that . [A] there is a definite relationship between inflation and interest rates [B] economy will always follow certain models [C] the economic situation is better than expected [D] economists had foreseen the present economic situation 题干问的是从整个文章可以推断出下面哪个说法,实际上是在变相地问全文的中心思想是什么.全文都在论述目前的经济形势比预想的要好很多([C]选项).第一段和第二段提到经济运行难以预测,然而近来经济形势却比往年都好.第三段首句又提到"它(指平均通货膨胀率)比多数预测者预测的数字要低",接着通过具体数据对此观点加以说明.第四段首句也指出"经济学家对英美两国有利的通胀率特别感到诧异". 4主旨题的特点 无论是在段落中还是在文章中,是明显还是隐蔽,主旨的提出主要有四种情况. (1)首段或首句开门见山指出中心或讨论的问题. Example The full import may take a while to sink in. The NT Rights of the Terminally Ill law has left physicians and citizens alike trying to deal with its moral and practical implications. Some have breathed sighs of relief, others, including churches, right-to-life groups and the Australian Medical Association, bitterly attacked the bill and the haste of its passage. But the tide is unlikely to turn back. In Australia—where an aging population, life-extending technology and changing community attitudes have all played their part—other states are going to consider making a similar law to deal with euthanasia. In the US and Canada, where the right-to-die movement is gathering strength, observers are waiting for the dominoes to start falling.(1997年Passage 1) From the second paragraph we learn that . [A] the objection to euthanasia is slow to come in other countries [B] physicians and citizens share the same view on euthanasia [C] changing technology is chiefly responsible for the hasty passage of the law [D] it takes time to realize the significance of the law's passage 该段是典型的首句主旨题.以首句为段落主题句,其他各句都围绕此句展开论述.正确答案为[D]选项.考生若对sink in理解有困难,还可以从段落总结归纳出主旨大意. (2)文章中间或段落中间给出中心. Example Could the bad old days of economic decline be about to return? Since OPEC agreed to supply-cuts in March, the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel, up from less than $10 last December. This near-tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock, when prices quadrupled, and 1979~1980, when they also almost tripled. Both previous shocks resulted in double-digit inflation and global economic decline. So where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time? The oil price was given another push up this week when Iraq suspended oil exports. Strengthening economic growth, at the same time as winter grips the northern hemisphere, could push the price higher still in the short term. Yet there are good reasons to expect the economic consequences now to be less severe than in the 1970s. In most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol than it did in the 1970s. In Europe, taxes account for up to four-fifths of the retail price, so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past. Rich economies are also less dependent on oil than they were, and so less sensitive to swings in the oil price. Energy conservation, a shift to other fuels and a decline in the importance of heavy, energy-intensive industries have reduced oil consumption. Software, consultancy and mobile telephones use far less oil than steel or car production. For each dollar of GDP (in constant prices) rich economies now use nearly 50% less oil than in 1973. The OECD estimates in its latest Economic Outlook that, if oil prices averaged $22 a barrel for a full year, compared with $13 in 1998, this would increase the oil import bill in rich economies by only 025%~05% of GDP. That is less than one-quarter of the income loss in 1974 or 1980. On the other hand, oil-importing emerging economies—to which heavy industry has shifted—have become more energy-intensive, and so could be more seriously squeezed. One more reason not to lose sleep over the rise in oil prices is that, unlike the rises in the 1970s, it has not occurred against the background of general commodity-price inflation and global excess demand. A sizable portion of the world is only just emerging from economic decline. The Economist's commodity price index is broadly unchanging from a year ago. In 1973 commodity prices jumped by 70%, and in 1979 by almost 30%. (2002年Text 3) We can draw a conclusion from the text that . [A] oil-price shocks are less shocking now [B] inflation seems irrelevant to oil-price shocks [C] energy conservation can keep down the oil prices [D] the price rise of crude leads to the shrinking of heavy industry 文章前面两段描述出一种现象,指出最近石油价格大幅上涨;接着在文章中间部分提出文章主旨"这次油价上涨不会造成经济衰退的原因",并在以后各段分别论述这些原因.正确答案为[A]选项.这里涉及的阅读技巧是当有but,however,yet,while之类的转折连词出现时,该篇/段/意群/句的中心往往是这些词后面的部分. (3)文章末段或段落末句对全文或全段进行总结归纳,得出中心思想. Example Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots. Unlike most of the world's volcanoes, they are not always found at the boundaries of the great drifting plates that make up the earth's surface; on the contrary, many of them lie deep in the interior of a plate. Most of the hot spots move only slowly, and in some cases the movement of the plates past them has left trails of dead volcanoes. The hot spots and their volcanic trails are milestones that mark the passage of the plates. That the plates are moving is now beyond dispute. Africa and South America, for example, are moving away from each other as new material is injected into the sea floor between them. The complementary coastlines and certain geological features that seem to span the ocean are reminders of where the two continents were once joined. The relative motion of the plates carrying these continents has been constructed in detail, but the motion of one plate with respect to another cannot readily be translated into motion with respect to the earth's interior. It is not possible to determine whether both continents are moving in opposite directions or whether one continent is stationary and the other is drifting away from it. Hot spots, anchored in the deeper layers of the earth, provide the measuring instruments needed to resolve the question. From an analysis of the hot-spot population it appears that the African plate is stationary and that it has not moved during the past 30 million years. The significance of hot spots is not confined to their role as a frame of reference. It now appears that they also have an important influence on the geophysical processes that propel the plates across the globe. When a continental plate comes to rest over a hot spot, the material rising from deeper layers creates a broad dome. As the dome grows, it develops deep fissures (cracks); in at least a few cases the continent may break entirely along some of these fissures, so that the hot spot initiates the formation of a new ocean. Thus just as earlier theories have explained the mobility of the continents, so hot spots may explain their mutability (inconstancy).(1998年Passage 5) The passage is mainly about . [A] the features of volcanic activities [B] the importance of the theory about drifting plates [C] the significance of hot spots in geophysical studies [D] the process of the formation of volcanoes 文章总共三段,第一段对热点下定义:热点及其火山痕迹是板块移动的标志.第二段和第三段主要论述热点理论的作用.全文主旨句是第三段的前两句,它们承上启下,指出热点不仅有参照作用,还对推动板块移动的地质物理学过程提供了解释.正确答案为[C]选项. (4)文章或段落中不明确给出中心,考生要根据各段中心或各句的内容进行总结,自己推出主旨. Example A history of long and effortless success can be a dreadful handicap, but, if properly handled, it may become a driving force. When the United States entered just such a glowing period after the end of the Second World War, it had a market eight times larger than any competitor, giving its industries unparalleled economies of scale. Its scientists were the world's best, its workers the most skilled. America and Americans were prosperous beyond the dreams of the Europeans and Asians whose economies the war had destroyed. It was inevitable that this primacy should have narrowed as other countries grew richer. Just as inevitably, the retreat from predominance proved painful. By the mid-1980s Americans had found themselves at a loss over their fading industrial competitiveness. Some huge American industries, such as consumer electronics, had shrunk or vanished in the face of foreign competition. By 1987 there was only one American television maker left, Zenith. (Now there is none: Zenith was bought by South Korea's LG Electronics in July.) Foreign-made cars and textiles were sweeping into the domestic market. America's machine-tool industry was on the ropes. For a while it looked as though the making of semiconductors, which America had invented and which sat at the heart of the new computer age, was going to be the next casualty. All of this caused a crisis of confidence. Americans stopped taking prosperity for granted. They began to believe that their way of doing business was failing, and that their incomes would therefore shortly begin to fall as well. The mid-1980s brought one inquiry after another into the causes of America's industrial decline. Their sometimes sensational findings were filled with warnings about the growing competition from overseas. How things have changed! In 1995 the United States can look back on five years of solid growth while Japan has been struggling. Few Americans attribute this solely to such obvious causes as a devalued dollar or the turning of the business cycle. Self-doubt has yielded to blind pride. "American industry has changed its structure, has gone on a diet, has learnt to be more quick-witted," according to Richard Cavanaugh, executive dean of Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. "It makes me proud to be an American just to see how our businesses are improving their productivity," says Stephen Moore of the Cato Institute, a think-tank in Washington, D.C. And William Sahlman of the Harvard Business School believes that people will look back on this period as "a golden age of business management in the United States."(2000年Passage 1) What can be inferred from the passage? [A] It is human nature to shift between self-doubt and blind pride. [B] Intense competition may contribute to economic progress. [C] The revival of the economy depends on international cooperation. [D] A long history of success may pave the way for further development. 答案:B 解析:文章的主题既不在首段,也不在末段,需要考生综合各段内容得出.从全文看,文章叙述了美国经济从繁荣到衰败再到繁荣的过程,且特别强调竞争给美国带来90年代的经济复苏.[B]选项"激烈的竞争可能促进经济的发展"正合全文大意. 5主旨题的解题技巧 根据上述这四种情况,制定如下解题对策: 第一,因为考生需要读完全文才能把握文章主题,所以在解答此类题时,考生不要急于去找答案,不论它出现在什么位置都把它作为最后一道题来做.在做完另外几道题后,无疑会有助于考生加深对整个文章的理解. 第二,看到文章主旨型题目,考生要着重理解首段或末段,同样,段落主旨题也要重视首末句.这是英语文章中出现中心思想最频繁的位置. 第三,文章主旨出现在中间的比较少见.这样的主旨句一般兼起承上启下的作用.遇到文章中前后段意思转折时,考生应该提高警惕,它往往是主旨所在.段落中情况也类似. 第四,如果文章中没有明确的主题句,主题思想要通过各段的主要内容进行归纳.这时考生就要着重看各段的首末句.试题中的Title 题也属于该种情况.考生必须通读全文,才能得出答案. 解题中还有一些具体实用的解题技巧: 首先,关于主题句的判断方法.第一,段落主题句的判断要看该段的第二句或第三句.如果它们是对第一句进行阐述,那么第一句就是主题句;如果是对第二句进行阐述,那第二句就是主题句;主题句也可能出现在末句.当最后一句是对全段进行总结时,该句就是主题句.对于主题句在句中的情况,当段落中出现转折时,该句很可能是主题句.文章主旨所在段落的判断与此相同.第二,作者有意识地反复重复的观点通常是主旨.第三,首段出现疑问句时,该问题就是全文探讨的内容,对该问题的解答就是文章主旨.第四,作者提出文章主旨时,常常伴有文字提示,如therefore,thus,but,however,in short 等等. 其次,选项特点.正确选项特点:(1)不出现细节信息;(2)不含过分肯定或绝对意义的词.干扰项特点:(1)一般以偏概全,只是文章的细枝末节,不能涵盖全文内容;(2)出现细节性的名词信息;(3)过于笼统. (二)作者观点题和态度题 在一篇文章中,不管作者对某一观点是支持、反对还是中立,是同情、冷漠还是失望,是批评还是赞扬,主观还是客观,都表达了作者一定的观点和态度.只是这些观点态度的提出有的直截了当,有的隐含在字里行间,有的通过所用词语的褒贬来体现,有的则需要通读全文,把握主旨才能领会.一般情况下,所选的文章不带有强烈的感情色彩,因此不会引起太大的争议和分歧. 此类题型可细分为作者态度题(表明作者的好恶)和作者观点题(表明作者对某事物的观点).题干中的关键词或词组有attitude,opinion,tone等等.其命题模式如下. 1作者态度题 (1)What is the tone (mood) of the passage? (2)The author's attitude towards...might be summarized as(seems to be) . (3)Which of the following can best describe the attitude of the author towards...? (4)The author is most critical of . 2作者观点题 (1)According to the author, . (2)In the author's opinion, . (3)What is the author's opinion (idea) about? (4)The author thinks (believes, suggests, deems, asserts) that . (5) In the author's eyes... 态度题的选项一般是形容词,按照作者对所阐述问题的态度进行分类,可以分为: 积极类:objective(客观的), impartial(公正的),helpful(有帮助的),positive(正确的),supporting(支持的),admiring(羡慕的),interesting(引起兴趣的),unbiased(没有偏见的),concerned(关心的),confident(自信的),impressive(给人印象深刻的),optimistic(乐观的)等; 中立类:detached(超然的), factual(实际的), indifferent(无关紧要的),impassive(冷漠的),uninterested(不感兴趣的),ambivalent(矛盾的),apathetic(无动于衷的),neutral(中立的,不确定的),impersonal(不带个人色彩的)等; 消极类:disgusting(令人厌恶的),critical(批评的),negative(否定的),intolerable(不能忍受的),disappointed(失望的),subjective(主观的),biased(有偏见的),doubtful(怀疑的),compromising(折中的),worried(担心的),pessimistic(悲观的),hostile(敌对的)等. 历年作者态度题: 年份 正确选项 干扰项 2007 Text 2 [B] skeptical(消极类) [A] Supportive(积极类) [C] Impartial(中立类) [D] Biased(消极类) 2006 Text 2 [D]is sympathetic to the RSC(积极类) [A] is supportive of both sides(积极类) [B] favors the townsfolk's view(积极类) [C] takes a detached attitude(中立类) 2004 Text 4 [A] optimistic(积极类) [B] Confused. (消极类) [C] Carefree. (积极类) [D] Panicked. (消极类) 2003 Text 4 [B] reserved consent(积极类) [A] strong disapproval(消极类) [C] slight contempt(消极类) [D] enthusiastic support(积极类) T2002 Text 3 [A] optimistic(积极类) [B] sensitive (中立类) [C] gloomy (消极类) [D] scared(消极类) 2001 Passage 4 [B] objective (积极类) [A] optimistic(积极类) [C] pessimistic(消极类) [D] biased(消极类) 3作者态度题的解题技巧 第一,某一事物是好是坏.作者对它是支持还是反对,态度都非常明确,而带中立色彩的词最不可能是正确答案.问作者对某事物的态度时,表示"客观"的词多为正确选项,如:objective, impartial, unbiased等;问作者对其提到的人们的观点的态度时,答案只能是肯定或否定,支持或反对.如:critical, approval, opposition, supporting等. 第二,既然写了文章,那么作者的态度就不可能漠不关心,因此见到indifferent,uninterested这类词可以首先排除. 第三,注意不要把考生自己的好恶态度糅进其中,要注意区分作者本人的态度和作者引用的观点的态度. 第四,当作者的态度没有明确提出时,考生要学会根据作者使用的词语的褒贬性去判断作者态度,如:wonderful(y),successful(y),positive(ly),active(ly),negative(ly), unfortunate(ly), doubtful(ly)等. Example Under the new Northern Territory law, an adult patient can request death probably by a deadly injection or pill—to put an end to suffering. The patient must be diagnosed as terminally ill by two doctors. After a "cooling off" period of seven days, the patient can sign a certificate of request. After 48 hours the wish for death can be met. For Lloyd Nickson, a 54-year-old Darwin resident suffering from lung cancer, the NT Rights of Terminally Ill law means he can get on with living without the haunting fear of his suffering: a terrifying death from his breathing condition. "I'm not afraid of dying from a spiritual point of view, but what I was afraid of was how I'd go, because I've watched people die in the hospital fighting for oxygen and clawing at their masks, " he says.(1997年Passage 1) The author's attitude towards euthanasia seems to be that of . [A] opposition [B] suspicion [C] approval [D] indifference 作者通过living without the haunting fear of his suffering这一肯定性词语表达出自己的态度是[C] approval. 解答态度观点题应注意两点: 第一,区别作者的态度与其他人的态度.问文中某人对某事物的态度一般归入事实细节题. 第二,选项可能不再是态度明确的肯定或否定的形容词,而改为带有程度限制的形容词.一般带有绝对化或过于强烈的表示态度的词必错,如strong/complete/entire/enthusiastic等.而有保留的态度比较客观,因此常常是正确选项,如reserved(保留的)/qualified (有限制的,有条件的)/tempered (有所控制的)/guarded(慎重的)/consent (赞同)等. 4作者观点题的解题技巧 第一,文章陈述的内容并非都是作者的观点.作者引用别人的观点时,是作为支持或抨击的对象,因此别人的观点是为了证明作者观点的论据. 第二,作者观点一般与文章主旨相关联. (三)词义/句意题 命制的试题中经常有要求考生对词语和句子做出解释的题目.两者都主要侧重于考查考生通过上下文去判断词义、句意的能力.词义题的考查有两种:一是超纲词含义的推断,另一个是熟词僻义或是在特定场合的意思. 1词义句意题命题模式 (1)The phrase (word, sentence)in line...) most probably means . (2)By "...", the wrier (probably ) means . (3)What does the author probably mean by "..." in... paragraph? (4)The phrase (word, sentence) suggests . (5)From the passage,we can infer that the word "..."is . (6)According to passage, what is "..." ? (7)When the author says that..., he means . 2词义题的解题技巧 (1)根据上下文进行推理猜测 考生必须明确,不管所考的词语有多超纲,都能够通过上下文得出其意思;不管这个词有多熟悉,都必须通过上下文得出其在特定场合的意思.在克服畏惧心理的同时,也要避免直接用自己熟悉的意义去解释词义.对句子的理解也要通过前后关联的句子进行推测.比如利用前后的比较对照关系、利用文中给出的定义或对它进行的重述、利用所举的例子进行归纳、利用同义/近义/反义词、利用特殊标点符号等等. Example We live in a society in which the medical and social use of substances (drugs) is pervasive: an aspirin to quiet a headache, some wine to be sociable, coffee to get going in the morning, a cigarette for the nerves. When do these socially acceptable and apparently constructive uses of a substance become misuses? First of all, most substances taken in excess will produce negative effects such as poisoning or intense perceptual distortions. Repeated use of a substance can also lead to physical addiction or substance dependence. Dependence is marked first by an increased tolerance, with more and more of the substance required to produce the desired effect, and then by the appearance of unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the substance is discontinued.(1997年Passage 3) The word "pervasive" (Line 1, Paragraph 2) might mean . [A] widespread [B] overwhelming [C] piercing [D] fashionable 所要解释的词pervasive后有冒号,起解释说明的作用.因此通过冒号后的内容就可以知道该词的含义.作者在冒号后面列举了物质在日常生活的各个方面的使用,因此可推知[A]选项"分布广泛的,普遍的"为正确答案. (2)对超纲词含义的推断 生词是造成阅读困难的障碍之一.阅读短文中的词汇一般不超过大纲的词语范围,但也有5%左右的派生词和合成词,2%~3%的超纲词.对于部分超纲而且专业性较强的词,在较早的几年里命题者还曾给出过其汉语意思,如:1991年Passage 1中的chlorophyll(叶绿素)、carbohydrates(碳水化合物);1992年Passage 2中的inertia(惯性),Passage 3中的hockey(曲棍球);1993年Passage 1中的babbling(咿呀学语),Passage 2中的bureaucratic(官僚主义的),Passage 3中的monopoly(垄断);1994年Passage 4中的pancreas(胰腺)、genes(基因),Passage 5中的mold(霉).但是后来的命题趋势中取消了这种形式,其意图在于让考生更多地去猜测词语含义.其实很多短文中出现的超纲词汇并不影响对全文的理解,而且我们可以以下几种方法去猜测其含义. ①构词法:掌握常见的英语词根、词缀,通过分析生词的词根、前缀、后缀去推测词义.如:1996年Passage 5中的nonfundamentalist(非原教旨主义 non-非,不;fundament基础,基本原理;-al 形容词后缀;-ist…主义者). ②词性加搭配:先判断生词在文章中的词性,再看它与哪些词语可以搭配,最后根据自己的常识猜测其大概含义. ③找同义词、同义解释或反义词和反义解释:在上下文中找出生词的其他表达法,可能是近(反)义词、一个解释或一些暗示. ④找同位词:上下文中可能有类似生词出现的句子的平行结构,找出其中和生词处于同一位置的词去推测. 考生可以适当记些词根词缀,以备不时之需.如: geo-:前缀,表示"地球",如:geography:地理学, 地理;geology:地质学 ;geophysic:地球物理学; hydro-: 前缀,表示"水","液体",如:hydrobiology:水生物学;hydro-cooling:水冷法;hydro-mania:投水狂,自溺;hydroelectric:水电的; over-:前缀,表示"越过,超过",如:overcrowdedness:过于拥挤;overestimate:估计过高,过高评价;oversensitive:过于敏感;overplease:使过分高兴;overactive:过于活跃. Example Moreover, demographers see the continuing shift south and west joined by a related but newer phenomenon: More and more, Americans apparently are looking not just for places with more jobs but with fewer people, too. Some instances— Regionally, the Rocky Mountain states reported the most rapid growth rate—371 percent since 1970 in a vast area with only 5 percent of the US population. Among states, Nevada and Arizona grew fastest of all: 635 and 531 percent respectively. Except for Florida and Texas, the top 10 in rate of growth is composed of Western states with 75 million people—about 9 per square mile.(1998年Passage 4) The word "demographers" (line 1, paragraph 8) most probably means . [A] people in favor of the trend of democracy [B] advocates of migration between states [C] scientists engaged in the study of population [D] conservatives clinging to old patterns of life 根据上下文demographers提到的两个例证都涉及人口,因此他们应该是 "人口统计研究方面的人".[C]选项"研究人口的科学家,也就是人口统计学家"是该词的正确含义.同时,也可运用构词法的知识, demo=people, graph=write, -er指人.因而猜出它指"记录人口方面数据的人". (3)句意题解题技巧 试题中出现句意题时,考生需要根据上下文的内容联系去猜测句意;或将所考的句子与它的上下文进行关系对照,找出它与上下文的关系,如转折、并列、递进、解释说明等,然后针对不同的关系,对上下文采取取非、找同义等方法进行解题. Example It is also less than most forecasters had predicted. In late 1994 the panel of economists which The Economist polls each month said that America's inflation rate would average 35% in 1995 In fact, it fell to 26% in August, and is expected to average only about 3% for the year as a whole. In Britain and Japan inflation is running half a percentage point below the rate predicted at the end of last year. This is no flash in the pan;over the past couple of years, inflation has been consistently lower than expected in Britain and America.(1997年Passage 5) The sentence "This is no flash in the pan" (Line 5, Paragraph 3) means that. [A] the low inflation rate will last for some time [B] the inflation rate will soon rise [C] the inflation will disappear quickly [D] there is no inflation at present 此题需要根据上下文推测句意.在This is no flash in the pan之前,作者给出近来美国、英国和日本的通货膨胀率都低于经济学家预期的数字;之后又指出在过去的几年,英国和美国的通货膨胀率始终低于预期的水平.由此可以推断,该句意思是"并非一时现象,并非是昙花一现". [A]选项"低通货膨胀率将会持续一段时间"符合题意. (4)选项特点 正确选项特点:第一,词义题中,不是熟词的常规含义.第二,句意题中,正确选项不含有意义过于绝对化的词语,而是使用不肯定语气词或意义解释深刻. Example The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating under competitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it.(1994年Passage 1) In line 8,paragraph 1, "the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes" means . [A] Americans are never satisfied with their incomes [B] Americans tend to overstate their incomes [C] Americans want to have their incomes increased [D] Americans want to increase the purchasing power of their incomes [A]、[B]选项都使用了带有绝对意义的词语,如never 和overstate因此可直接排除.[C]和[D]意义相近,但是[D]的意义更为深刻,因此可知[D]为答案.而且,此处的income不是常规词义"收入",而是"收入的购买力",故不可选答案[C]. 干扰项特点:第一,与所考词汇形似.第二,如果考的是熟词,含有常规词义的一般是错误选项.第三,根据命题原则,正确选项不会使用与原文过多相同的字眼,因此,对句子的解释中含有过多原句中已有的词和短语的选项一定是错误的. (四)推理引申题 推理引申题主要测试考生理清上下文逻辑关系的能力,要求考生领悟所读材料中句子之间的逻辑关系,并且根据材料提供的已知信息进行分析、归纳和推理.判断推理能力对深刻理解一篇文章十分重要,特别是理解作者字里行间的言外之意、作者的观点、写作意图和态度.命题专家在命制此类试题时通常要求考生对文章或段落进行深层推理和理解,不可能把试题的答案非常直接地暴露于选项中.因此考生应该注意把它与事实细节题区别开来,推理引申题必须以事实为依据,但是得出的结果又绝对不是事实本身,即不能"就事论事". 推理引申题对一些基础比较薄弱的考生而言是一个难点,考生似乎对文章读懂了(可称之为"自我感觉良好"),然而在解题时却始终不知如何下手,试题也做得不好.这是考生没有领会命题专家设置推理引申试题的用意的缘故.事实上推理引申题考查的不仅是考生对字面意义的理解,更要求考生透过文章的字里行间去推测作者未明说而又意欲表达的含义.解此类题,考生应该根据文中的材料进行有关的判断、推理和引申. 广义的推理引申题涵盖的范围极其广泛.它既可以就总体信息也可以就具体或特定信息提问.总体提问通常包括文章主旨题、作者观点态度题;局部提问通常指段落主旨题、猜测词义/句意题.但是为了突出这四种出现频率很高且带有典型性的题型,我们下面谈到的推理引申题是排除以上情况的狭义概念. 1命题模式 狭义的推理引申题题干中常有infer,imply,suggest,deduce,conclude等词出现,常见的命题模式有: (1)It can be inferred from the text/the last paragraph/the first sentence that... (2)We can infer (assume, deduce) that . (3)Which of the following can (not) be inferred from the passage? (4)It is implied (indicated, suggested) in the passage/the first paragraph/the second sentence/the example that . (5)By... the author implies (suggests, indicates )that . (6)The passage implies in the passage that . (7)The author suggests(indicates)in the passage that . (8)It can be concluded from the passage that . (9)From the passage /the third paragraph/the last sentence/the example that... we can draw the conclusion that . (10)What conclusion can be drawn from the passage (the first paragraph, the last paragraph)? 引申推理题按照解题思路主要可以分为暗指题、推理题和结论题. 暗指题的特点是要求读者体味"言外之意",信息只能从字里行间获得.对于这类试题,考生首先要分清是明述还是暗指,即言内还是言外;其次,要尽最大可能与命题者达成"共识",因为命题人事先确定的答案不允许考生的认识有任何偏差;最后,要对文章中的有关事实和观点进行分析和研究,按照事实发展的逻辑次序,总结出合情合理的结论. Example 1 If experiments are planned and carried out according to plan as faithfully as the reports in the science journals indicate, then it is perfectly logical for management to expect research to produce results measurable in dollars and cents. (1999年Passage 5) The author implies that the results of scientific research . [A] may not be as profitable as they are expected [B] can be measured in dollars and cents [C] rely on conformity to a standard pattern [D] are mostly underestimated by management 原句是个假设条件句,指出"假如科学实验像科学杂志登载的科学报告显示的那样完全按事先的计划去规划和实施,那么,对管理层来说,期待研究能够产生可以用金钱衡量的结果是完全合理的".此处正话反说,作者的言外之意是,科学实验总有不可预测的现象,产生的结果也难以预测,因此不能肯定有效益.[A]选项"可能不像预料的那样有利可图"才是作者真正想要表达的含义. Example 2 Why mention the elementary schools? Because thanks to these schools our early mechanics, especially in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, were generally literate and at home in arithmetic and in some aspects of geometry and trigonometry. Acute foreign observers related American adaptiveness and inventiveness to this educational advantage. As a member of a British commission visiting here in 1853 reported, "With a mind prepared by thorough school discipline, the American boy develops rapidly into the skilled workman."(1996年Passage 4 ) It is implied that adaptiveness and inventiveness of the early American mechanics . [A] benefited a lot from their mathematical knowledge [B] shed light on disciplined school management [C] was brought about by privileged home training [D] owed a lot to the technological development 这里第二段的首句指出:敏锐的外国观察家将美国人的适应能力和创新能力与这个教育优势联系在一起.this往回复指前述的最后内容,也就是前一段末句谈到的"技工们有文化并且熟知算术、几何学、三角学",从而可知这种教育优势就是熟练掌握数学.因而作者暗指的意思是[A]选项"它们很大程度上得益于数学". 推理题与暗指题虽然有许多相似之处,但是其思路与方法更侧重于推理,主要测试考生的思维判断能力,即由已知的事实为依据去获得未知的信息.考生解题时首先要把握推理范围——大至段落或全文,小至词语或句子;其次要严格遵循逻辑规律,保持正确的思维过程和严密的逻辑;再次可以利用相关部分提供的事实、背景知识和常识去推理. 干扰项的特点:根据文章中某些事实亦可以推导,然而又答非所问. (1)推断文章内容的含义和引申意思 Example Examples of benefits or costs of the current concentration wave are scanty. Yet it is hard to imagine that the merger of a few oil firms today could re-create the same threats to competition that were feared nearly a century ago in the U. S., when the Standard Oil Trust was broken up. The mergers of telecom companies, such as WorldCom, hardly seem to bring higher prices for consumers or a reduction in the pace of technical progress. On the contrary, the price of communications is coming down fast. In cars, too, concentration is increasing-witness Daimler and Chrysler, Renault and Nissan—but it does not appear that consumers are being hurt.(2001年Passage 4) From Paragraph 4 we can infer that . [A] the increasing concentration is certain to hurt consumers [B] WorldCom serves as a good example of both benefits and costs [C] the costs of the globalization process are enormous [D] the Standard Oil Trust might have threatened competition 命题者设置的难点是第二句中定语从句的理解.原文谈到"目前难以预料,数家石油公司的合并是否会再次对竞争造成威胁.100年前美国的标准石油联合公司(Standard Oil Trust)被解散,就是因为当时人们担心它会对竞争构成威胁",由此引申推理可知[D]项"标准石油联合公司可能曾对竞争形成过威胁".此外,考生还需要注意,might have threatened是虚拟语气,表示对过去的推测. (2)运用数字进行推理 Example Emerging from the 1980 census is the picture of a nation developing more and more regional competition, as population growth in the Northeast and Midwest reaches a near standstill. This development—and its strong implication for US politics and economy in years ahead—has enthroned the South as America's most densely populated region for the first time in the history of the nation's head counting. Altogether, the Us population rose in the 1970s by 23.2 million people—numerically the third-largest growth ever recorded in a single decade. Even so, that gain adds up to only 11.4 percent, lowest in American annual records except for the Depression years. Americans have been migrating south and west in larger numbers since World War Ⅱ, and the pattern still prevails. (1998年Passage 4) Discerned from the perplexing picture of population growth the 1980 census provided, America in 1970s . [A] enjoyed the lowest net growth of population in history [B] witnessed a southwestern shift of population [C] underwent an unparalleled period of population growth [D] brought to a standstill its pattern of migration since World War Ⅱ 这是一道涉及数字的题目,从标志词1970s可以定位为文章第三段,本段指出:"20世纪70年代,美国人口总共增长了2 320万——从数字上看,这是有纪录以来10年期人口增长的第三高峰.即使如此,人口总数也只增加了11.4%,除了大萧条时期,这是美国年度记录最低的增长率."因此,[A]选项和[C]选项与文意不符.接着文章第四段谈到人口普查显示出"第二次世界大战以来,美国人不断移居西部和南部,现在这种趋势依然存在".因此可以得出[B]选项是正确答案,而[D]选项与该段内容正好相反. (3)用类比的例子,要求考生进行推理演绎 Example1 There are two basic ways to see growth: one as a product, the other as a process. People have generally viewed personal growth as an external result or product that can easily be identified and measured. The worker who gets a promotion, the student whose grades improve, the foreigner who learns a new language-all these are examples of people who have measurable results to show for their efforts. By contrast, the process of personal growth is much more difficult to determine, since by definition it is a journey and not the specific signposts or landmarks along the way. The process is not the road itself, but rather the attitudes and feelings people have, their caution or courage, as they encounter new experiences and unexpected obstacles. In this process, the journey never really ends; there are always new ways to experience the world, new ideas to try, new challenges to accept. (1995年Passage 2) A person is generally believed to achieve personal growth when . [A] he has given up his smoking habit [B] he has made great efforts in his work [C] he is keen on learning anything new [D] he has tried to determine where he is on his journey 本文指出看待人的成长有两个观点:一是视为结果,一是视为过程.第一段具体讲到第一种观点的详细内容.它是大部分人都持有的观点,看重外在结果因为其可以量化,可以通过具体事例反映出来,如:工人得到升迁、学生成绩提高和外国人学会了一门新的语言.第二段讲第二种观点的详细内容:成长是人在遇到新的经历和意外险阻时表现出来的态度和情感,而不是实在的结果.问的是根据第一种观点,以下哪一种是成长表现.通过文中类比的例子可知只有[A]选项是实在的结果. 结论题与推理题在解题思路和方法上有许多相似之处,但是推理题偏重于推理过程,而结论题偏重于归纳过程.解答结论题时一定要根据题目要求,就短文有关内容做出合乎逻辑的、可靠的结论.有时为了克服片面性,可以扩大阅读范围,否则获得信息的范围太窄,结论便欠妥.因此,解答此类试题既要以事实为依据,也要依据自己的常识和经验;既要重视文章主题,也要重视发展或印证主题的细节;而尤为重要的是把握作者的写作意图.注意过于概括、过于全面或过于细节化的选项,往往属于干扰项. (1)先了解全文,把握主题 考生可以通过首尾段、文章结构、或归纳整理各段信息迅速了解主题.然后再通过主题与细节的关系进行合乎理性的归纳. Example The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, where they are not extremely unattractive. As a result, the support for ambition as a healthy impulse, a quality to be admired and fixed in the mind of the young, is probably lower than it has ever been in the United States. This does not mean that ambition is at an end, that people no longer feel its stirrings and promptings, but only that, no longer openly honored, it is less openly professed. Consequences follow from this, of course, some of which are that ambition is driven underground, or made sly. Such, then, is the way things stand: on the left angry critics, on the right stupid supporters, and in the middle, as usual, the majority of earnest people trying to get on in life. (2000年Passage 5) From the last paragraph the conclusion can be drawn that ambition should be maintained . [A] secretly and vigorously [B] openly and enthusiastically [C] easily and momentarily [D] verbally and spiritually 该段谈到人们对雄心的攻击远多于对它的维护,因此本应是一种健康公开的品质得不到很多支持.第四句和第五句指出了不公开表达雄心带来的不良后果,由此可以推出人们不应该隐瞒自己的雄心.此外,纵观全文,作者提倡的是正确对待雄心,坦言自己的抱负.因此[B]选项"公开而热情地"是作者提倡的对待雄心的正确态度. (2)把握作者的写作意图 Example No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom. (2001年Passage 1) The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate. [A] the process of specialisation and professionalisation [B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study [C] the change of policies in scientific publications [D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs 前一段谈到,业余研究者进入专业领域很难的趋势在某些科学领域尤为突出,英国地质学的发展就说明了这一问题.后一段通过对19世纪英国地质学及其出版物的变化、研究方式的变化、非专业人员研究过程的困难等的陈述,说明专业人员和业余人员之间的分化越来越明显.因此可引申推理出作者的写作目的正是描述[A]选项 "职业化和专业化形成的过程". 2推理引申题的解答技巧 (1)推理引申题的划分 推理引申题按照难易可以分为:简单推理题和复杂推理题.第一,简单的推理题.虽然在原文中不能直接找到答案,但是有间接的暗示和线索.它们与答案之间的关系比较清楚,联系起来后便可以得出答案.而且答案与其他选项差别也较大.第二,复杂的推理题.在原文中找不到明确的解题线索,考生只能根据隐藏在词句后面的含义,根据作者说话的语气,反复分析,才能找到答案,而且干扰项的干扰较强.考生在几个选项中犹豫不定,不知选哪个好.后一种推理题是近几年命题的趋势. Example Here is an example, which I heard at a nurses' convention, of a story which works well because the audience all shared the same view of doctors. A man arrives in heaven and is being shown around by St. Peter. He sees wonderful accommodations, beautiful gardens, sunny weather, and so on. Everyone is very peaceful, polite and friendly until, waiting in a line for lunch, the new arrival is suddenly pushed aside by a man in a white coat, who rushes to the head of the line, grabs his food and stomps over to a table by himself. "Who is that?" the new arrival asked St. Peter. "Oh, that's God," came the reply, "but sometimes he thinks he's a doctor." (2002年Text 1) The joke about doctors implies that, in the eyes of nurses, they are . [A] impolite to new arrivals [B] very conscious of their godlike role [C] entitled to some privileges [D] very busy even during lunch hours 考生要根据全文的主旨以及作者的语气,从那个关于医生的笑话里推理医生和上帝有相似的特点:医生无礼、傲慢,自以为像上帝一样.接着再推测护士对医生的看法是:非常在乎自己上帝般的角色.这种推理是一个比较复杂的过程.[B]选项为正确答案. (2)推理引申题选项特点及其解答技巧 正确项的特点:①不是文中明确说明的内容,因为即使符合原文,没有引申推理就不是正确选项;②如果四个选项全能凭常识判断,其中含义深刻的是正确选项,有时惟一不是常识项的是正确选项. 干扰项的特点:①只是原文的简单复述,而非推断出来的结论,把直接表达当成间接推理;②看似从原文推断出来的结论,然而实际上与原文不符,例如把原文的原因变成了选项中的结果,把原文的手段变成了选项中的目的;③根据常识判断是正确的,然而不是在文章事实或上下文逻辑基础上推理而得出的观点,因此,考生要注意不能根据自己的主观想法或生活经验去推理,因为命题者考查的是考生揣摩作者意图的能力;④虽然以文章提供的事实或内在逻辑为推理依据,但推理过头,概括过度;⑤有部分选项的内容纯属编造. 根据推理引申试题的特点,考生在解答时要注意以下两点: 首先,考生在浏览全文时,一要留意那些似乎话中有话的间接表达句.它们往往采用说半句、打比喻、反过来讲的方式,留有让考生自己作结论或推理的余地.二要留意含义深刻或结构复杂的句子.考生对作者表达的意思不能一下子看透,它们往往是命题点所在. Example If you are part of the group which you are addressing, you will be in a position to know the experiences and problems which are common to all of you and it'll be appropriate for you to make a passing remark about the inedible canteen food or the chairman's notorious bad taste in ties. With other audiences you mustn't attempt to cut in with humor as they will resent an outsider making disparaging remarks about their canteen or their chairman. You will be on safer ground if you stick to scapegoats like the Post Office or the telephone system.(2002年Passage 1) It can be inferred from the text that public services [A] have benefited many people [B] are the focus of public attention [C] are an inappropriate subject for humor [D] have often been the laughing stock 该段末句"如果拿公共服务行业作为替罪羊(scapegoats)去进行评论,你就会处于安全境地"让人读了不是很明白,禁不住要去推想到底为什么公共服务行业这么特殊呢?联系上文,前面的内容说的是"开玩笑取乐要看听众是不是自己同行业的人,如果不是就有可能招人反感".一番推理之后,才明白这句话的另外一层未说明的含义,即选项[D]反映的内容:公共服务行业是大家经常谈论的共同笑料. 其次,根据题干的关键词迅速搜索定位以便确定推理依据的范围,利用语法、词汇、语境线索,了解单句的含义,弄清上下文的逻辑关系,然后按题意进行推理.题目可能要求考生对某句话或数句话进行正确理解或释义,也可能从某句话或某段话中推测出一两件事实. Example In most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol than it did in the 1970s. In Europe, taxes account for up to four-fifths of the retail price, so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past.(2002年Passage 3) It can be inferred from the text that the retail price of petrol will go up dramatically if . [A] price of crude rises [B] commodity prices rise [C] consumption rises [D] oil taxes rise 题干中的关键词是"the retail price of petrol".根据它定位到文章段落,文章先给出事实:原油价格占汽油零售价格的一小部分,其大部分是税收.在欧洲国家这个比例更是高达五分之四,因此原油价格的变动对汽油价格影响不大.据此可以推出二者的潜在关系:影响汽油价格的主要因素是税收;税收涨,油价也大幅度地涨. 3特殊的引申推理题型 (1)针对作者思路的推断 主要是猜测上下文可能出现的信息:首先,考生应该在分析概括文章的写作结构基础上进行推理.如:文章是按事物分类的叙述,而所选材料是其中一类,那么上下文就可能是对其他类别的叙述.其次,如果要求考生猜测短文之后的内容,就应该特别注意其结尾部分;如果要求考生猜测之前的内容,就应该特别注意短文的开始部分.其命题模式如下: It can be assumed that the paragraph, preceding (following) the passage most probably discusses . The paragraph preceding (following) this one is probably about . 此类题型到目前为止还未在研究生考试中的阅读部分出现,但是我们不能排除它是将来的一种新题型. (2)推断文章来源的类型 要求考生在读懂全文的基础上判断本篇文章选自何种书、杂志或文章的一部分.这种题目往往在文章中有所暗示.考生也可根据文章的写作结构、行文风格去推断其文体.此类题的例题模式如下: This passage appears to be a digest of . The passage is most likely a part of a . Example Rumor has it that more than 20 books on creationism/evolution are in the publisher's pipelines. A few have already appeared. The goal of all will be to try to explain to a confused and often unenlightened citizenry that there are not two equally valid scientific theories for the origin and evolution of universe and life. Cosmology, geology, and biology have provided a consistent, unified, and constantly improving account of what happened. "Scientific" creationism, which is being pushed by some for "equal time" in the classrooms whenever the scientific accounts of evolution are given, is based on religion, not science. Virtually all scientists and the majority of nonfundamentalist religious leaders have come to regard "scientific" creationism as bad science and bad religion. The first four chapters of Kitcher's book give a very brief introduction to evolution. At appropriate places, he introduces the criticisms of the creationists and provides answers. In the last three chapters, he takes off his gloves and gives the creationists a good beating. He describes their programmes and tactics, and, for those unfamiliar with the ways of creationists, the extent of their deception and distortion may come as an unpleasant surprise. When their basic motivation is religious, one might have expected more Christian behavior. Kitcher is a philosopher, and this may account, in part, for the clarity and effectiveness of his arguments. The non-specialist will be able to obtain at least a notion of the sorts of data and argument that support evolutionary theory. The final chapters on the creationists will be extremely clear to all. On the dust jacket of this fine book, Stephen Jay Gould says: "This book stands for reason itself." And so it does—and all would be well were reason the only judge in the creationism/evolution debate.(1996年Passage 5) This passage appears to be a digest of . [A] a book review [B] a scientific paper [C] a magazine feature [D] a newspaper editorial 文章首段以20本关于创造论与进化论之争的书开始,然后在第二段和第三段专门介绍金切尔著作的结构内容和突出特点,最后引用斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德的对话对此书做出高度评价,因此可以看出这是一篇典型的书评.英语书评的写作特点是:一般会先给出背景知识,接着介绍该书的主要内容,最后对所介绍的书籍做出一个总体评价.正确答案应该是[A]选项. (3)判断文章写作方法 这种题型在2005年试题中首次出现,体现了阅读理解选择题开始从对局部信息的考查转向对文章组织结构的考查.考生需要了解不同类型英语文章的特点,开头、结尾方式及段落的拓展技巧,只有对文章整体组织结构有了清楚的了解,解答此类题型才能得心应手. Example Everybody loves a fat pay rise. Yet pleasure at your own can vanish if you learn that a colleague has been given a bigger one. Indeed, if he has a reputation for slacking, you might even be ourtaged. Such behaviour is regarded as "all too human", with the underlying assumption that other animals would not be capable of this finely developed sense of grievance. But a study by Sarah Brosnan and Frans de Waal of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, which has just been published in Nature, suggests that it is all too monkey, as well.(2005年Text 1) In the opening paragraph, the author introduces his topic by [A] posing a contrast. [B] justifying an assumption. [C] making a comparison. [D] explaining a phenomenon. 第一段先举例:当知道懒散的同事拿到比自己更多的薪水时,每个人都会很气愤.接着文章指出,这样的行为被看作是"人之常情",它潜在地假定了其他动物没有这种高度发达的不满情绪.转折but在首段出现非常重要,它往往是主题出现的标志,即前面的内容被推翻,之后的新观点才是要论证的主题.该段but之后提出主题:研究表明猴子也有类似的情感.可见,第一段主要使用了类比论证手法,将猴子与人做比较,找出它们的相似之处.因此[C]正确. [A]选项中的contrast(对照)是比较两事物的不同点.[B]选项与原文相反,原文是推翻了一个假定而证明.原文提到了发生在人类身上的一个现象,但文章并未就此提出主题,排除[D]选项. (五)事实细节题 在阅读理解测试中,很大比例的题目是考细节的.事实上在对历年试题的分析中发现,事实细节题的比例占一半以上.文章中的细节通常指的是作者为论证文章主题特别是论证段落的大意而使用的具体信息.因为就议论文和说明文而言,作者在阐明准备论述的问题或观点后,通常会用大量具体的事实细节去说明或支持它们.这些细节可以是理由、例子、数字,也可以采用下定义、作比较、对比、打比方等方法去组织.根据具体考查的内容或范围,事实细节题可以再细分为因果细节题、态度细节题、观点细节题、类比细节题、综合细节题和具体细节题. 1常见的命题模式 (1)According to the passage/ the author, who (what, where, which, when, why, how, etc.) (2)Which of the following is true/correct/ false/not included? (3)All of the following are (not) true, are (not) mentioned except . (4)The author mentions all of the items listed below/all of the following except . (5)We learn from the last paragraph(the first three paragraphs, the text) that . 事实细节的考查内容和形式可以说是五花八门,但是大致可以归纳为以下三种类型: (1)According 型 题干中多用who,what, where, which, when, why, how等疑问词引导,利用词性、同义词、近义词或一些意思相似的语句去考查考生对原文表达细节信息的词汇、惯用法的正确理解,要求考生在文中寻找重要事实与细节.考生可以利用题目的关键词去寻找文中对应词,在对应词周围找答案.注意:此类题中,考what 和why 的最多. (2)隐含的事实和细节型 测试考生对文章展示的细节的综合概括能力;需要在读懂全文的基础上,综合概括作者展示的各种细节. Hunting for a job late last year, lawyer Gant Redmon stumbled across CareerBuilder, a job database on the Internet. He searched it with no success but was attracted by the site's "personal search agent". It's an interactive feature that lets visitors key in job criteria such as location, title, and salary, then E-mails them when a matching position is posted in the database. Redmon chose the keywords legal, intellectual property and Washington, D.C. Three weeks later, he got his first notification of an opening. "I struck gold," says Redmon, who E-mailed his resume to the employer and won a position as in-house counsel for a company.(2004年Passage 1) How did Redmon find his job? [A] By searching openings in a job database. [B] By posting a matching position in a database. [C] By using a special service of a database. [D] By E-mailing his resume to a database. 整个全文的主题是介绍"搜索代理"这种网上谋职工具.而第一段围绕雷德曼通过"个人搜索代理"求职的个人经历展开论述.根据整个段落的细节内容和全文的主题可以判断出[C]选项正确,该选项中的"特殊服务"指的就是"个人搜索代理"这种服务,其他干扰项都不符合文意. (3)正误判断题 此类试题多根据文章的一段或数段提问,考查考生在现实生活中的阅读技能,即快速、准确寻找所需信息的能力.这种题目因为覆盖面较广,搜索定位时间较长,因而难度较大,容易给考生带来心理压力.因此考生遇到此类题型时,首先要调整心理状态,冷静地返回到文章中去寻找答案. 这种题原文往往有罗列,因此其解题三步骤如下:首先,读懂题干和四个选项的内容,提炼和记忆它们的主要意思;其次,带着问题去阅读文章,扫描和搜寻信息点,与题目不相关的句子和语段很快掠过,相关信息语言区域则要放慢速度,细致地对照原文和选项提供的信息;最后,"对号入座",找到解题范围后,立刻排除明显的干扰项,然后"逐个突破",对余下的选项进行筛选,使选项的范围越来越小,判断的准确率越来越高. 正误判断题有两种题型:一正三误和三正一误,即要求考生找出四个选项中惟一正确的一个和要求考生判断哪一个选项与文章不符. 这中间应该特别提到的是后者,又称except题型.其特点是题干中常常含有否定意义词汇except,not (mentioned /true), least等,要求考生辨认哪些细节文章中未提及.解此类题也遵循上面的三个步骤.在对号入座时,可以将原文中提到的内容划线,表示是排除的内容;无法对号的即是答案. Example Money spent on advertising is money spent as well as any I know of. It serves directly to assist a rapid distribution of goods at reasonable prices, thereby establishing a firm home market and so making it possible to provide for export at competitive prices. By drawing attention to new ideas it helps enormously to raise standards of living. By helping to increase demand it ensures an increased need for labour, and is therefore an effective way to fight unemployment. It lowers the costs of many services: without advertisements your daily newspaper would cost four times as much, the price of your television licence would need to be doubled and travel by bus or tube would cost 20 per cent more. (1995年Passage 1) In the passage, which of the following is NOT included in the advantages of advertising? [A] Securing greater fame. [B] Providing more jobs. [C] Enhancing living standards. [D] Reducing newspaper cost. 这是一道典型的except题.先略读题干和选项,得知题目主要问的是广告的益处.定位到文章第一段.这一段列举了广告的四点益处: a有助于产品以合理价格稳定国内市场,以有竞争力的价格进入国际市场;b有利于提高人们的生活标准;c增加了市场需求,扩大了就业;d使许多公共事业的服务价格低廉.对号入座,发现只有选项[A]文中未提及. 2事实细节试题的选项特点和解题技巧 (1)正确选项的特点 ①一般可以在文章中直接或间接找到答案,但是不可能与阅读材料一模一样,而是用不同的词语或句型去表达相同的思想.如:原文用双重否定,选项用肯定的句式;进行同义词替换或句子结构的变换;或原文与选项互换反义词等等.然而这只是词语和句法上的变化,意思是一致的.模式为:题干+正确选项的信息值=/≈原文中某句的信息值. ②体现中心思想,有很多正确选项刚好在段落主旨句中. Example The world is going through the biggest wave of mergers and acquisitions ever witnessed. The process sweeps from hyperactive America to Europe and reaches the emerging countries with unsurpassed might. Many in these countries are looking at this process and worrying: "Won't the wave of business concentration turn into an uncontrollable anti-competitive force?" (2001年Passage 4) What is the typical trend of businesses today? [A] To take in more foreign funds. [B] To invest more abroad. [C] To combine and become bigger. [D] To trade with more countries. 文章的第一段指出当今企业界出现的一个现象,即整个世界正在经历一场前所未有的兼并和收购浪潮.这一并购之风从异常活跃的美国到达欧洲,并以不可比拟的威力影响到新兴经济国家.[C]选项"合并并且变得更加庞大"就是该段首句提到的mergers and acquisitions,即当今企业发展的主要趋势.该段的段落主旨句就是首句. ③在细节的因果关系处常常命题,正确项多为其产生原因或主要原因,也有少量考结果的. Example I believe that the most important forces behind the massive M&A wave are the same that underlie the globalization process: falling transportation and communication costs, lower trade and investment barriers and enlarged markets that require enlarged operations capable of meeting customers' demands. All these are beneficial, not detrimental, to consumers. As productivity grows, the world's wealth increases.(2001年Passage 4) According to the author, one of the driving forces behind M&A wave is. [A] the greater customer demands [B] a surplus supply for the market [C] a growing productivity [D] the increase of the world's wealth 该段剖析了造成并购潮流的数个重要原因,如:交通和通讯成本的日趋下降,贸易和投资壁垒的降低,以及扩大的市场要求扩大业务去满足顾客的需要.[A]选项"顾客更大的需要"是上面提到的第三个因素,因此[A]为正确选项.[B]选项"对市场的供给过于充裕"即市场供应过剩,应该是企业缩小生产的原因.[C]选项"日益增长的生产率"是企业合并后的结果,而[D]选项"世界财富的增长"又是生产力提高的结果. (2)干扰项的特点 ①部分正确,部分错误;②是原文信息,但不是题目要求的内容,如:根据题干中的关键词定位到段落,若选项中出现这个范围之外其他段落的内容必错;③符合常识,但不是文章的内容;④与原句的内容极为相似,但在程度上有些变动,如:将文中并非绝对化的内容绝对化,或偷梁换柱改动一些关键词;⑤明显不是文章的信息,与文中事实相反或不符. (3)事实细节试题的解题技巧 ①主题和事实细节内容是相辅相成的,确定了主题,才能深刻理解细节材料的作用.同样,对具体细节有较为全面的理解,就能够更好地判明主题.考生要记住这一原则:文章的每一词、句、段都和文章主题相关,不是用来证明主题的论据,就是作者要批判的论据. ②文章的事实细节内容不会孤立地出现,它与前后的内容密切相关.文章或段落中的细节都存在某种内在的联系,如:因果关系,类比关系,时间、空间先后关系,考生在阅读中可以利用这些关系将零碎的细节组成一个有机的整体. ③看细节内容要"跳"出来看,即要对文章的组织结构了如指掌,知道这部分细节是为什么主题服务的,才能迅速捕捉到所需的信息. ④一般都可以在文章中直接或间接找到答案.遵循"本本主义",以原文为解题的惟一依据,而不可以自我发挥或凭感觉做题.如:选项中出现文章未涉及的中心词可以首先排除. ⑤考生要留意文章或题干中一些细小的地方,如:正确把握文中代词的所指关系,它们是为了避免上下文重复而使用的.此外还有时态、语气等. Example If the preoccupation of schools with academic work was lessened, more time might be spent teaching children surer values. Perhaps selection for the caring professions, especially medicine, could be made less by good grades in chemistry and more by such considerations as sensitivity and sympathy. It is surely a mistake to choose our doctors exclusively from A-type stock. B's are important and should be encouraged.(1995年Text 4) The selection of medical professionals are currently based on . [A] candidates' sensitivity [B] academic achievements [C] competitive spirit [D] surer values 这段文章基本上是虚拟语气,即所给的细节和情况都与现在的事实相反.虽然最后两句是直接陈述语气,但是却没有直接指明[A]和[B]在这里具体代表什么.而试题问的是现在的情况,因此对整段进行综合分析并且将原句反过来表述而得出,现在的选择标准就是academic work或good grades.因此[B]为正确答案. 四、其他的常考点 (一)引语常考 文章中出现的引语基本上都是考点,只是采用不同的题型而已,如推理引申题、句意理解题、作者意图题等等.特别注意首段引语的三种作用:第一,作为支持作者观点的论据;第二,作为作者批判的靶子;第三,给出文章大背景. Example 1 Tight-lipped elders used to say, "It's not what you want in this world, but what you get." Psychology teaches that you do get what you want if you know what you want and want the right things.(1996年Passage 1) What do the elders mean when they say, "It's not what you want in this world, but what you get?" [A] You'll certainly get what you want. [B] It's no use dreaming. [C] You should be dissatisfied with what you have. [D] It's essential to set a goal for yourself. 此题以引言作为文章首句,作为作者批判的靶子,进而引出真正的观点,即做事前应该制定计划.命题目的在于检查考生能否准确把握what you want和what you get具体化后的含义.原句it's not...but...结构否定的是"你所想",肯定的是"你所得".即,得到什么比想要什么重要.[B]选项为正确答案. Example 2 No company likes to be told it is contributing to the moral decline of a nation. "Is this what you intended to accomplish with your careers?" Senator Robert Dole asked Time Warner executives last week. "You have sold your souls, but must you corrupt our nation and threaten our children as well?" At Time Warner, however, such questions are simply the latest manifestation of the soul-searching that has involved the company ever since the company was born in 1990. It's a self-examination that has, at various times, involved issues of responsibility, creative freedom and the corporate bottom line. (1997年Passage 4) Senator Robert Dole criticized Time Warner for . [A] its raising of the corporate stock price [B] its self-examination of soul [C] its neglect of social responsibility [D] its emphasis on creative freedom 此处引言的作用就是给出文章探讨的大背景.要求考生通过该引言推出责备Time Warner的原因.答案为[C]选项. (二)例子常考 例子经常出现在命题中,而且题型多为作者观点态度题.此类题型主要针对文章中所举之例的作用进行发问.考生应该注意例子的出现无非有两种情况:一是先提观点后举例;二是先举例后提出观点.而该观点就是作者引用例子所要说明或反驳的.因此见到例子后,考生应该迅速查找其上下文,目的必在其中.通过历年真题分析,发现先提观点后举例的情况占多数. Example 1 You can make a mental blueprint of a desire as you would make a blueprint of a house, and each of us is continually making these blueprints in the general routine of everyday living. If we intend to have friends to dinner, we plan the menu, make a shopping list, decide which food to cook first, and such planning is an essential for any type of meal to be served. Likewise, if you want to find a job, take a sheet of paper, and write a brief account of yourself. In making a blueprint for a job, begin with yourself, for when you know exactly what you have to offer, you can intelligently plan where to sell your services.(1996年Passage 1) A blueprint made before inviting a friend to dinner is used in this passage as . [A] an illustration of how to write an application for a job [B] an indication of how to secure a good job [C] a guideline for job description [D] a principle for job evaluation 举例是为了说明或驳斥某个观点,在这篇文章中,例子直接摆在观点句后,是典型的先提观点后举例的形式.作者先表述其观点:You can make a mental blueprint of a desire... and each of us is continually making these blueprints in general routine of everyday living.接下来作者以请人吃饭的例子来说明a mental blueprint of a desire,并把它与"找工作"的方式联系起来,指出两者的相同之处都是要"勾画一幅欲望蓝图".因此,[A]选项为正确答案. Example 2 To take advantage of this tool, some impoverished countries will have to get over their outdated anti-colonial prejudices with respect to foreign investment. Countries that still think foreign investment is an invasion of their sovereignty might well study the history of infrastructure(the basic structural foundations of a society)in the United States. When the United States built its industrial infrastructure, it didn't have the capital to do so. And that is why America's Second Wave infrastructure—including roads, harbors, highways, ports and so on—were built with foreign investment. The English, the Germans, the Dutch and the French were investing in Britain's former colony. They financed them. Immigrant Americans built them. Guess who owns them now? The Americans. I believe the same thing would be true in places like Brazil or anywhere else for that matter. The more foreign capital you have helping you build your Third Wave infrastructure, which today is an electronic infrastructure, the better off you're going to be. That doesn't mean lying down and becoming fooled, or letting foreign corporations run uncontrolled. But it does mean recognizing how important they can be in building the energy and telecom infrastructures needed to take full advantage of the Internet. (2001年Passage 2) The writer mentioned the case of the United States to justify the policy of . [A] providing financial support overseas [B] preventing foreign capital's control [C] building industrial infrastructure [D] accepting foreign investment 此题是典型的先举例后提出观点的形式.以美国为例之后,作者提出"哪个国家利用外资多,哪个国家就将变得更富裕"的结论.由结论可以直接得出答案.正确答案为[D]选项. (三)长难句常考 考点一般集中在长难句上.这些句子的共同点就是同位语、定语和分句很多;主语和谓语之间的距离很远,还时常伴有插入成分.主要考查句子之间的指代或逻辑关系,以引申推理题、事实细节题等多种形式出现.理解长难句的要领就是先找出主干,化繁为简,然后再看各个分句或修饰成分与它的关系. Example In addition to this, there is the growing mobility of people since World War Ⅱ. As families move away from their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships, the informal flow of information is cut off, and with it the confidence that information will be available when needed and will be trustworthy and reliable. The almost unconscious flow of information about the simplest aspects of living can be cut off. Thus, things once learned subconsciously through the casual communications of the extended family must be consciously learned.(1995年Text 3) The word "it" (Line 3, Paragraph 2) most probably refers to . [A] the lack of stable communities [B] the breakdown of informal information channels [C] the increased mobility of families [D] the growing number of people moving from place to place 首先把握整个句子的主干是:the informal flow of information is cut off.前面是as引导的状语从句,their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships三个名词短语都是from的宾语.with it介词结构修饰confidence,表伴随;按照代词指代关系中的临近一致原则和上下文的含义,it应该指代它前面的信息,即"非正式的信息流通被切断"这句话.正确答案为[B]选项. (四)转折处或对比处常考 在历年考题中,转折和对比一直受到命题者的青睐.文章通过however,but,in fact,yet等逻辑词进行转折,转折后的内容常常是作者真正表达的内容.对比常用unlike,different from,until,not so much as等词语引导,考的是对比双方的属性.对转折题,考生要着重把握作者转折后的观点.对于文章中出现的将两种人或两种观点进行对比时,考生要准确把握每一种的特点,避免被张冠李戴的选项迷惑. Example 1 Few creations of big technology capture the imagination like giant dams. Perhaps it is humankind's long suffering at the mercy of flood and drought that makes the idea of forcing the waters to do our bidding so fascinating. But to be fascinated is also, sometimes, to be blind. Several giant dam projects threaten to do more harm than good. (1998年Passage 1) The third sentence of paragraph 1 implies that . [A] people would be happy if they shut their eyes to reality [B] the blind could be happier than the sighted [C] over-excited people tend to neglect vital things [D] fascination makes people lose their eyesight 该段前两句指出人们热衷建坝的事实和热衷的自然原因;第三句but话锋一转,引出作者探讨的主题.正确答案为[C]选项. Example 2 An invisible border divides those arguing for computers in the classroom on the behalf of students' career prospects and those arguing for computers in the classroom for broader reasons of radical educational reform. Very few writers on the subject have explored this distinction—indeed, contradiction—which goes to the heart of what is wrong with the campaign to put computers in the classroom.(1999年Passage 3) The author thinks the present rush to put computers in the classroom is . [A] far-reaching [B] dubiously oriented [C] self-contradictory [D] radically reformatory 作者将两种态度做了对比,指出对于计算机课堂教学,人们在观点上存在着一条无形的界限:一是以学生的就业前景为理由,另一种是以激进的教育改革为理由.因此[B]为答案. (五)因果句常考 (1)出这类题时,文章中一般都有since,for,because,as,therefore,result in,originate from这些标志词.没有标志词的就需要考生通过上下文推出二者的因果关系. Example 1 Technically, any substance other than food that alters our bodily or mental functioning is a drug. Many people mistakenly believe the term drug refers only to some sort of medicine or an illegal chemical taken by drug addicts. They don't realize that familiar substances such as alcohol and tobacco are also drugs. This is why the more neutral term substance is now used by many physicians and psychologists. The phrase "substance abuse" is often used instead of "drug abuse" to make clear that substances such as alcohol and tobacco can be just as harmfully misused as heroin and cocaine.(1997年Passage 3) "Substance abuse"(Line 5, Paragraph 1) is preferable to "drug abuse" in that. [A] substances can alter our bodily or mental functioning if illegally used [B] "drug abuse" is only related to a limited number of drugtakers [C] alcohol and tobacco are as fatal as heroin and cocaine [D] many substances other than heroin or cocaine can also be poisonous 该段最后一句用to明确表达用"物质滥用"代替"药物滥用"的目的所在,也就是原因.正确答案为[D]选项. (2)当有多种原因时,主要原因常考. Example 2 Could the bad old days of economic decline be about to return? Since OPEC agreed to supply-cuts in March, the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel, up from less than $10 last December. This near-tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock, when prices quadrupled, and 1979~1980, when they also almost tripled. Both previous shocks resulted in double-digit inflation and global economic decline. So where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time? The oil price was given another push up this week when Iraq suspended oil exports. Strengthening economic growth, at the same time as winter grips the northern hemisphere, could push the price higher still in the short term.(2002年Text 3) The main reason for the latest rise of oil price is . [A] global inflation [B] reduction in supply [C] fast growth in economy [D] Iraq's suspension of exports 文章第一、二段给出了多种原因."伊拉克暂停石油出口"、"经济快速增长"和"冬季的到来"是第二段提到的进一步推动油价上涨的原因,而第一段谈到的"石油输出国组织在3月决定减少原油供应"才是最主要的原因.正确答案为[B]选项. (六)段首段尾常考 考研阅读所选的文章均是议论文和说明文.此类文章的文体要求在首段提出观点、突出中心,因此第一段就好像是全篇文章的一个总纲,确定了文章的主要内容,而第一句话常常是一个自然段的主题句.首段首句自然就成为常考且必考的一个考点.有时一个自然段的主题句可能出现在段末,因此考点也相应转向末句. Example 1 If you intend using humor in your talk to make people smile, you must know how to identify shared experiences and problems. Your humor must be relevant to the audience and should help to show them that you are one of them or that you understand their situation and are in sympathy with their point of view. Depending on whom you are addressing, the problems will be different. If you are talking to a group of managers, you may refer to the disorganized methods of their secretaries; alternatively if you are addressing secretaries, you may want to comment on their disorganized bosses.(2002年Text 1) To make your humor work, you should . [A] take advantage of different kinds of audience [B] make fun of the disorganized people [C] address different problems to different people [D] show sympathy for your listeners 本题的答案主要集中在段首和段尾.该段首句指出,如果你想在谈话中用幽默使人发笑,你就必须知道如何辨别共同的经历和共同的问题.接着作者又对此进行了解释,即:你的幽默必须与听众有关,显示你是他们中的一员,或你理解他们的处境并赞成他们的观点.作者在第三句得出结论,即Depending on whom you are addressing, the problems will be different.(针对不同的听众,谈及不同的问题)由此可知,[C]选项恰好是对该段中心的概括,为正确答案. Example 2 ...With regard to Futurist poetry, however, the case is rather difficult, for whatever Futurist poetry may be-even admitting that the theory on which it is based may be right-it can hardly be classed as Literature. ... This, though it fulfills the laws and requirements of Futurist poetry, can hardly be classed as Literature...(2000年Passage 3) The author believes that Futurist poetry is . [A] based on reasonable principles [B] new and acceptable to ordinary people [C] indicative of a basic change in human nature [D] more of a transient phenomenon than literature 通过首段末句和末段首句的前后呼应,作者对未来派的观点和态度跃然纸上,即未来派诗歌很难被归于文学作品,只能是一种暂时的现象.正确答案为[D]选项. 此外,首段有问句出现的,该句也通常会成为命题点.命题形式是主旨题.因此见到首段的问句,应该首先考虑它是不是文章所要探讨的主要问题. Example 3 Why do so many Americans distrust what they read in their newspapers? The American Society of Newspaper Editors is trying to answer this painful question. The organization is deep into a long self-analysis known as the journalism credibility project.(2001年Passage 3) What is the passage mainly about? [A] Needs of the readers all over the world. [B] Causes of the public disappointment about newspapers. [C] Origins of the declining newspaper industry. [D] Aims of a journalism credibility project. 文章一开头就给出讨论的话题"造成公众对报纸失望的原因",接下来的内容亦围绕它展开.正确答案为[B]选项. (七)类比比喻常考 议论文和说明文在论证说明事理的时候均很抽象.为了让读者更形象地理解一些抽象的内容,文章常采用类比的手法.形象的类比不仅有助于将抽象的道理阐释清楚,更可以让读者加深印象.类比在文中有两种体现方式 ,一是明喻,即A像B一样;二是暗喻,说A是B,由于暗喻更加隐蔽,近年来命题专家越来越趋向于在暗喻内容上设问. Example If ambition is to be well regarded, the rewards of ambition—wealth, distinction, control over one's destiny—must be deemed worthy of the sacrifices made on ambition's behalf. If the tradition of ambition is to have vitality, it must be widely shared; and it especially must be highly regarded by people who are themselves admired, the educated not least among them. In an odd way, however, it is the educated who have claimed to have given up on ambition as an ideal. What is odd is that they have perhaps most benefited from ambition—if not always their own then that of their parents and grandparents. There is a heavy note of hypocrisy in this, a case of closing the barn door after the horses have escaped—with the educated themselves riding on them.(2000年Passage 5) The last sentence of the first paragraph most probably implies that it is . [A] customary of the educated to discard ambition in words [B] too late to check ambition once it has been let out [C] dishonest to deny ambition after the fulfillment of the goal [D] impractical for the educated to enjoy benefits from ambition 这里要求考生理解"马已经跑了再关上马厩的门"这一比喻句的真实含义.通过上文的内容可知,此句用来比喻"那些受过良好教育的人从雄心中收益匪浅,但是他们却声称要放弃以雄心为理想"的虚伪行为,其中horses代表ambition,riding代表ambition带来的好处.正确答案为[C]选项. (八)复指处常考 考点是复指代词或与复指副词作用相同的词.1996以前此类题目大多是直接问考生文章某句中的it或that指代什么.近几年此类题目的问法开始转向隐蔽.考生在遇到此类题时应该记住,题目的答案所在位置必定在复指词的上文中.因此,只需返回原文,在复指词上方扫描即可找到正确答案. Example For a long period of time and in many parts of the country, a traveler was a welcome break in an otherwise dull existence. Dullness and loneliness were common problems of the families who generally lived distant from one another. Strangers and travelers were welcome sources of diversion, and brought news of the outside world. The harsh realities of the frontier also shaped this tradition of hospitality. Someone traveling alone, if hungry, injured, or ill, often had nowhere to turn except to the nearest cabin or settlement. It was not a matter of choice for the traveler or merely a charitable impulse on the part of the settlers. It reflected the harshness of daily life: if you didn't take in the stranger and take care of him, there was no one else who would. And someday, remember, you might be in the same situation.(1997年Passage 2) Families in frontier settlements used to entertain strangers . [A] to improve their hard life [B] in view of their long-distance travel [C] to add some flavor to their own daily life [D] out of a charitable impulse this指代的是上文提到的"陌生人和旅行者很受欢迎.他们带来了娱乐消遣,还带来了外面世界的消息",因此边远地区的家庭款待旅游者的原因就是[C]选项"为自己的日常生活增添情趣". 五、阅读技巧 (一)阅读时采用何种顺序 (1)从面到点,先通读文章后看题,不清楚再回头去读有关段落.优点:一开始就对文章有一个总的概念和印象.缺点:速度慢,读起来没有重点,做题时对文章细节记不清楚. (2)从点到面,先看问题后浏览文章,带着问题的记忆去文章中找答案.优点:针对性强、速度快,无关的内容可以省略不读,与问题很可能有关的内容则可重点标出.缺点:开始时没有对文章的整体把握. (3)点面交叉,读一层意思做数道题,阅读和做题交叉进行.优点:速度适中,比较有针对性,对刚读完的内容印象深.因为全文最重要的部分在首段和各段首句,用这种方法也可以对文章的轮廓有初步的了解. 总结:任何方法都不是绝对的,考生可根据自己的个性与思维习惯以及具体的题目情况灵活处理.像段落主旨题、词义/句意题、事实细节题这些局部问题可以采用从点到面的方法,而主旨题、作者态度/观点题、引申推理题因为就全文提问或考上下文逻辑关系则需要从面到点.然而命题者出于对难易平衡的考虑,基本上会保证每篇都有一道至两道全局性问题.所以考生可以考虑点面交叉的方法. (二)初读文章时哪些信息可以不读 (1)有关职务、头衔、社会地位等补充性说明; (2)句中破折号后提供的旁支信息; (3)复杂的难句中除了主、谓、宾以外的其他辅助信息(除非与解题有关); (4)例子、对名人言论的引用的具体内容可以先不读,而只读前面的观点或总结句. (三)可以读哪些信息 (1)读题干.细心审题是一个重要环节,题干中包含解题的关键信息.它们能够帮助考生在浏览文章时迅速选定"精读内容"进行集中消化、整理,同时舍弃与题目无关的信息,排除干扰,从而减少阅读量和时间,提高解题的正确性. (2)读选项.因为命题要求选项部分的语言难度要低于文章语言的难度,所以读懂选项的语言常常会帮助考生正确理解文章的内容. (3)读文章的写作大纲.先要问自己三个问题:①本文最重要的事物或观点是什么?②作者谈的是主题的哪个或哪些方面?③作者在这方面想说些什么?阅读要用眼更要用脑去判断哪些是重要信息,还要在脑子里加工、整理,从而得出全文的提纲. (4)读主题句.每个段落都有一个基本点,加在一起烘托出文章的中心思想.各段的基本点常常通过段落主题句表示.主题句的位置是不固定的,可以在开始也可以在结尾,有时也不出现,需要考生自己提炼.主题句与其他句子的区别是它们的概括性更强,比较笼统、抽象. (5)读关键词.注意文章中出现频率最高的词和短语.它们有时是相同的重复,有时以不同的形式出现,但是归根结底都是指同一事物或事情,因些就很可能是本篇短文的中心或关键问题或事物.关键词和词组能够使句与句、段与段之间的关系更加清楚,提供了要点之间的"桥梁",给读者指明了"路子",是贯穿全文的线索. 考生在浏览文章时抓住、抓准这些关键信息,就可以迅速理解文章的主要内容、缩短解题时间. Example The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating under competitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers. In the American economy, this mechanism is provided by a price system, a process in which prices rise and fall in response to relative demands of consumers and supplies offered by seller-producers. If the product is in short supply relative to the demand, the price will be bid up and some consumers will be eliminated from the market. If, on the other hand, producing more of a commodity results in reducing its cost, this will tend to increase the supply offered by seller-producers, which in turn will lower the price and permit more consumers to buy the product. Thus, price is the regulating mechanism in the American economic system. The important factor in a private-enterprise economy is that individual are allowed to own productive resources (private property), and they are permitted to hire labor, gain control over natural resources, and produce goods and services for sale at a profit. In the American economy, the concept of private property embraces not only the ownership of productive resources but also certain rights, including the right to determine the price of a product or to make a free contract with another private individual. 这篇文章中的关键短语是American economic system,在文中多次反复出现,刚好它就是全文的写作对象.抓住了这个关键信息再加上"路标"词,文章的结构一目了然. 文章首句提出了含有写作对象的主题,即美国经济体制的特点是通过私有企业和市场导向起调节作用.末句thus后面是对主题的进一步阐释,分析和指出消费者的需求、企业家对最大利润的追求和个人对收入取得最大收益的渴望,共同决定着生产什么以及如何使用资源进行生产.第二段说明市场导向型经济的重要特点之一是价格机制.第三段说明私营经济的性质和特点是财产私有和同时拥有相关权利. (6)读"路标"词.在阅读理解中有部分"虚词"比"实词"更重要,它们就是一些表示作者思路的过渡词、短语或句子,有利于作者思想的衔接和转折.抓住它们,考生就能够对全文的结构一目了然,就不会出现"词都认识,就是不知道全文在讲什么"的情况.它们就是在阅读行进过程中起指示作用的"路标",随时提醒考生将要读到什么. "路标"词按照功能可以分为: ①前进型.这一类词和词组起的是顺接、递进作用,指示读者继续往下看,其前后可能存在并列、递进、因果、解释等关系,往往接下来的可能是作者要强调的重要内容. 如:and, also, more, moreover, more than that, furthermore, likewise, equally important, first, second, in addition to, thus, so, therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result 等. ②转弯型.这一类标志着前后两个句子或段落之间的转折或对比关系,读者要敏感地意识到后面出现的是与前面截然不同的事物或观点,从而对作者的思想进行预测. 如:but, yet, while, however, nevertheless, although, though, otherwise, despite, instead, on the contrary, in contrast, notwithstanding等. ③终点型.这一类标志着下面的内容是对前面的概括和总结. 如:to conclude, to sum up, in sum, in conclusion, in short, in brief, on the whole等. ④其他.表示空间位置(near, far, beside, next to, above, on the side of, across, behind)、目的(for this purpose, so that, in order to)、强调(indeed, in fact, surely, certainly, to be sure, I am certain)、举例(for example, for instance, in particular)、条件(in that case, that being so, in these circumstance, if, unless)等. 以上都是关于阅读理解的一些基本知识和技能的总体介绍,但是不能够光靠这些就可以提高阅读能力.冰冻三尺非一日之寒,阅读水平的提高,更多地要靠考生在实际阅读的积累中去体会和揣摩.因此希望考生在积极备考中务必将历年真题做熟、做精,深刻体会阅读理解的各个部分,从而产生质的飞跃. 第三部分阅读理解B部分命题的特点和规律 一、阅读理解B部分总体分析 (一)命题的基本指导思想 根据2006年《英语考试大纲》修订部分的内容,阅读理解B部分现有三种备选题型(包括2005年增加的选择搭配新题型).每次考试从这三种备选题型中选择一种进行考查. 备选题型有: 1.一篇总长度为500~600词的文章,其中有5段空白,文章后有6~7段文字.要求考生根据文章内容从这6~7段文字中选择能分别放进文章中5个空白处的5段. 2.在一篇长度约500~600词的文章中,各段落的原有顺序已被打乱.要求考生根据文章内容和结构将所列段落(7~8个)重新排序,其中2~3个段落在文章中的位置已给出. 3.在一篇长度约500词的文章前或后有6~7段文字或6~7个概括句或小标题.这些文字或标题分别是对文章中某一部分的概括、阐述或举例.要求考生根据文章内容,从这6~7个选项中选出最恰当的5段文字或5个标题填入文章的空白处. (二)试题特点 阅读理解B部分试题主要考查考生对连贯性、一致性、逻辑性等语篇、语段整体性特征以及文章结构的理解,即要求考生在理解全文的基础上把握文章的整体和微观结构.考生既要理解和掌握文章总体结构和写作思路,又要弄清上下文之间的逻辑关系. 这一新题型的增设,使文章长度从传统阅读理解中的400词左右增加到500~600词,大大增加了阅读的总量.这就要求考生在提高阅读速度的同时,还要能够准确的猎取文章的具体信息,并概括出文章的主旨要义,尤其是要掌握作者的写作意图、观点,区分出论点和论据,并能把握文章的写作结构和脉络层次.新题型考查重点从较低的语言基础知识即词汇和语法、句子的层次提高到段落和篇章这些较高层次的语言知识上来.因此,考生不仅需要了解文章的主干内容还要把握文章结构上的逻辑关系和整体布局,从而准确无误地将选项部分和文章某个部分一一对应,并可以与空白处的上下文有机地衔接起来. 新题型更加突出了阅读与写作之间的密切关系,因为在英语文章的写作过程中有其表达上的语言规律和篇章结构上的层次安排,所以,如果在进行英文写作时可以做到主题突出、段落层次鲜明、行文自然流畅、衔接手法多样、文字连贯,在做此类阅读新题型时必然有所裨益. (三)文章结构特点 要想准确迅速地解答阅读新题型,我们必须对英文文章的写作思路了然于心,了解并学习英语文章的篇章结构知识,因为他们反映了新题型的出题原则.常见的英语篇章结构包括: 1.问题型:提出问题—分析问题—解决问题 这类文章的基本模式是:文章通常以某种现象或话题开篇,该现象或者话题可能涉及社会生活、文化教育等各个领域.接着,针对此现象或话题展开讨论分析,找出其存在或产生的根源从而得到解决问题的办法. 解答这一类型的文章,考生关键要抓住发现问题—分析问题—解决问题这条主线. 2.议论型:提出论点—列举论据—得出结论 这一类型的文章与我们较为熟悉的议论文有很多共同之处,与问题型文章也不乏相似的地方.所以考生解答起来应该颇为容易.其基本模式是:在文章开始,作者列出自己的观点,接下来用所掌握的论据对此观点加以论证,最后得出结论.阅读这类文章,考生只要细心掌握哪些是论点,哪些是论据,结论又是什么即可. 3.立论/驳论型:提出观点—表示赞同—论证观点 提出观点—发表异议—驳斥观点—建立观点—论证观点 这类文章虽然与前两类文章有很多共同之处,但相比较而言,颇为复杂,同时也是考试中出现可能性较大的一种.文章的基本模式是:在文章开始提出一种时下比较流行的观点或者现象,接着作者阐述自己对此现象或者观点的看法(也可能会涉及到大众的舆论).在阐述自己看法的同时,作者会表明自己的态度,或赞成或反对.如果作者持赞成态度,就直接对它加以论证;如果持反对态度的话,则还要提出自己的观点,并给出充分论据证明.遇到这一类型的文章时,考生首要的任务就是通观全文,弄清楚其中哪个是作者的观点,哪个是作者要驳斥的观点,每个观点都有哪些论据作为支撑就基本完成了.由于这里面大多有明显的转折意思,考生可以去找一些提示语,比如:However/But/Nevertheless/As a matter of fact.这些词语常常可以作为作者观点和其他观点的分水岭. 4.因果型:结果/现象—原因/成因 这一类型的文章接近于说明文.文章大多以一种现象或者一种结果开篇,然后进一步探讨导致这种现象或结果的原因或成因.(文章大多围绕社会生活,文化教育等领域展开) 了解新题型所考查的要点,在阅读文章时有意识地加强对文章写作思路和结构组织安排的理解,对迅速增强此类新题型的应对能力还是非常有帮助的.因此考生可以在备考阶段选择文章,勾划掉几个重要句子,自己进行练习. (四)解题线索 1. 主题句 一篇英语文章总体有个核心的观点或主题,每个段落又有其分主题,而文章其他部分都是通过举例、引用、列数字等说明或论证手段来详细阐释主题.因此,在解题时,关键要学会抓住主题或论点.或者根据主题或论点,选择相应的实例或引用的话语,或者根据所给的实例、引用的话语或数字,来总结归纳出与之相关的主题要点,从而选择相对应的论点或主题句.无论空格在何处,都要采取就近原则,通过空格上下文的信息线索找出主题. 2. 关联词/短语 考生应熟悉英语文章中起到启承转合作用的关联词和短语,以便尽快了解文章的写作思路和整体结构,为迅速找出正确答案打好基础. 转折however, yet, but, anyhow, anyway, nevertheless, while, whereas,instead,instead of; 并列、递进 and, indeed,almost, even, similarly, like, besides, further, moreover, most important, in addition, furthermore, too, also, and then, again; 条件、让步if, only if, in spite of, despite, though, although, even so, even though, rather, after all, regardless; 原因、结果 because, since, as, for, due to, so, therefore, thus, hence, in that, accordingly, consequently, as a result, as a consequence, so that, to this end; 比较、对比likewise, at the same time, in the same way, in comparison, in contrast, like, as, just as, conversely, on the contrary ; 列举、举例first, second, etc. in the first place, in the second place, next, another, finally, still, namely, that is, for instance, for example, as an example, specifically, in particular; 时间关系 before,after, until, till, meanwhile. 3. 空白处的位置 空白处的位置可能在段首、段落中间、段未,但不会是文章的第一句,一般情况下也不会是最后一句.如果空格在段首,则选择的内容要么是本段主题句,要么是连接前段和本段内容起到承上启下作用的句子.如果空格出现在段中,则要联系该段的主题句解题;如果空格在段尾,则一般所选择的答案应起到一种总结归纳、下结论的作用,或者是对本段上文内容的补充说明. 4. 特征词 特征词包括:代词、数字、词义改写词、逻辑关系词等.出现代词的选项往往不能放在首句.其次要注意指代成立的条件.如:it可指代单数名词或整个句子;they或them指代复数名词;one指代单数可数名词;that指代不可数名词或句子;this指代单数名词或句子.当选项中出现数字,尤其是时间年代时,往往要注意与原文中年代的前后对应关系.选项中出现与原文同义改写的词越多的往往就是可选择项.逻辑关系词直接给出空格处与上下文的逻辑关系,有利于考生作出判断. 二、新题型具体介绍 第一种备选题型是2005年新增加的题型,即Gapped text(选择搭配题或完形填句/段题).这类题型虽然是首次应用到研究生英语考试中来,但它在英语测试中已经是比较常见的题型,主要测试考生的阅读能力.所选择的文章强调统一主题,空白处的句子或段落也都是围绕着文章的主题大意而展开的.考生要根据全文的内容和写作思路,将所给的段落准确地选择到其适合的位置. (一) 解题指导 题型由两个部分组成:主干部分和选项部分.主干部分是一篇有多处空格的文章,选项部分为多个句子或段落,要求考生将选项的内容与空格搭配,重新填入并使文章内容及结构完整.该题型中文章的长度和选项的数量在不同类型考试中是不同的,而在研究生入学考试中,这篇阅读文章原文总长度约为500~600词,其中有5段空白处,文章后有6~7段文字,考生根据自己对文章的理解从中选择能分别放回文章中5个空白处的5个选择答案. (二) 解题步骤 (1)先通读全文主干部分要点,了解文章内容大意及各段落之间的逻辑关系,弄清楚主干内容和结构上的关系和布局.可采用浏览式阅读法阅读全文要点词句、首尾段、每段首句以及独立成段的句子和文章中带转折词的句子等.在空白处考生可预测将要读到的内容. (2)浏览各选项的内容,如果选项较长,可以将其内容简要地概括出来,写在旁边.其中的难词生词一时还不能确定其含义可以直接保留其英语.这样既可以避免每次做题时都将所有选项的全部内容再看一遍,也可以迅速知道每个选项的主要意思. (3)接着根据各个空白处所在的位置,结合上下文内容,分辨出选项部分从结构和内容上看属于文章哪个部分,并可以与空白处的上下文有机地衔接起来.仔细研读文章中空白处的上下文,注意上下文中的某些语法、词汇、标点特征虽然会给出暗示,但考生应记住不能过分关注具体的细节,而要着眼于全文,通过文章内容线索、结构线索、逻辑线索(如时间、地点、因果关系、从属关系等)找出正确答案.注意两点:一是答题可以不按顺序,先做容易的,在此基础上再去攻克难的;二是不要留下空格不选,如果实在不知道答案可以先假设一个. (4)然后用代入法,检查答案是否合理.将所有选择答案放回空白处,通读全文,检查文章内容上是否语义连贯合理、紧扣主题,语篇结构上是否通顺连贯、具有一致性、合乎逻辑,写作思路是否清晰明了,格式以及用语是否恰当贴切,从而判断选择的答案是否基本正确.如果有时间的话,考生最后应记住检查一下没有入选的多余的句子或段落是否真的不适合填入任何一个空格. (三)大纲样题分析(Sample 1)见2001年真题分析 第二种备选题是排序题,要求考生将所给的一组段落排序,使其组成一篇条理清晰,内容连贯的文章.这就需要考生在阅读各段时把握它们的中心思想,并将各段的大意整合,理清它们之间的逻辑顺序. (一)解题指导 先通观全文,勿在细枝末节上浪费时间;留意体现逻辑关系的特征词,例如first, finally, of course, however 等;由于这类考题没有多余选项,所以考生要从最有把握的入手,再对其他几项仔细推敲,确定最佳答案. (二)解题步骤 (1)迅速浏览每个段落,重点放在首尾两句,概括出每个段落的大意. (2)仔细阅读已经给出的首尾两段,推测文章的逻辑关系,确定文章结构类型. (3)按照已推测出的逻辑关系将所给段落排序 (4)通读全文,检查段落排列是否合理 (三)大纲样题分析(Sample 2)见2002年真题分析 第三种备选题型实际上包含两种形式:根据标题选内容,或者根据内容选标题.这一题型主要考查考生区分论点、论据,把握论点论据一致性的能力.要求考生理解各个论点/观点的重点和含义,并能找出与论点一致的论据. 下面就两种类型的题目分别进行分析: 信息搭配之根据标题选内容题型(匹配论据). (一)解题指导 这类型的试题一般以议论文的形式出现,考查考生对论点论据的一致性的把握.试题要求考生在理解文章内容的基础上,准确把握文章中各个论点的含义和侧重点,然后从所给选项中选出支持这些论点的相应论据. 这种题型将论据从文章中剥离出来,要求考生将它们还原,与文中的论点相匹配,因此考生需要熟悉常用的论证方法. (1)例证法:举出实际而有代表性的事例来说明事物,把比较抽象、复杂的事物(或事理)说明得更加具体而明晰,从而使文章通俗易懂,具有说服力.常见的有典型举例法和列举法两种.前者用典型、具体的事例来说明一个观点.后者用多个细节对主题思想进行说明. (2)因果论证法:通过分析事物发展的原因和结果来阐释主题.可以是先因后果也可以是先果后因. (4)比较法:用熟知的事物跟要说明的对象做比较,帮助读者理解该事物的特征.针对不同事物之间的共同点或不同点进行阐述.可以进行整体的比较,也可以逐项比较.比较类别有:一﹑同类事物的比较;二﹑不同事物的比较;三﹑同一事物本身先后情况的比较. (5)分类法:对于复杂的事物,可以根据它们的性质、成因、关系、功用等来进行分类. (6)比喻论证法:为了把复杂的事物和抽象的事理说得具体、浅显、生动,往往须用一个事物来说明另一个事物. (7)诠释法:一种详细解释概念的方法,通常在定义之后,利用诠释去补充定义之不足,使读者对事物既有概括性认识,又有具体性了解. (8)引证法:引用一些有关资料、名言、研究成果等来充分说明要说的内容,帮助读者更深入了解事物. (二)解题技巧以及应该注意的问题 (1)缩小范围,划定重点.这类题型的阅读量包括文章和选项两部分,信息量特别大.如果考生分不清侧重点,会浪费很多的时间和精力.因此考生要先找出重点,即首段尾段,首句尾句,以及文章中的黑体字等. (2)寻找同义或相似词汇.既然选项是为论点提供论据的,那么其内容必定和文章给出的各个分论点存在逻辑关系,如:并列关系,扩展关系,补充关系等.无论它们是哪种关系必定有很多共同之处.而意义上的相近很容易带来同义词以及类似句型的运用.考生不妨从这里入手.这种词义或词汇的变换有以下几种形式: 同义词:pay more attention—focus on 词性转换: be brief—brevity is the best 句型转换:the casual friendliness of Americans should be interpreted neither as superficial nor as artificial——the tradition of hospitality to strangers tends to be superficial and artificial 此外,也应留意数字、地点以及其他特殊的专有名词. (3)目的明确,要获取与主旨相关的主要信息.切忌在细枝末节上耽搁全面阅读.在大纲样题中可以发现,有些以黑体字形式出现的小标题,很容易被考生误解为分论点.事实上,这些小标题并不能等同于分论点或者是总结句,他们大多被作者设置用来引起读者的注意,或者突出文章的某一个方面.因此,在答题的时候,不能匆匆忙忙地下结论,正确的做法是结合正文去理解小标题的真正含义和所指. (4)仔细辨别选项.有相似选项的,一定要区分异同之处,切不可急于求成,抓住一两个相同词汇就匆忙做出答案. (5)合理分配时间.考生应该在下面解题步骤中第二三步上多用些时间和精力,第一步和第四步依个人情况而定. (三)解题步骤 (1)通读全文.完成此类题型的第一步就是通读全文.考生在第一次阅读的时候无需过于关注文章的细枝末节,只要迅速浏览一下,争取对文章有个大概了解.为了节省时间,考生可以把重点放在首段和尾段,以及个个段落的首句和尾句,从常理上讲,文章的大意和段落大意即主题应该在这两部分有充分的提示.在阅读过程中,尤其要注意文章中的黑体字部分,这样在头脑中就可以形成对作者重点强调内容的一个初步印象 为了防止在阅读过程中遗忘,考生可以用简单的词语对各个分论点进行概括总结. (2)细读选项.此类题型大多是从六或七个选项中选出五个正确答案.因此,每个选项都不能忽视.考生应该注意比较各个选项尤其是相似选项的异同之处.必要的时候,考生可以根据自己的理解在重点处做出标记. (3)再阅读.这里所说的再阅读指的是对文章的第二次阅读,并在这次阅读的过程中结合文章和选项做出答案.考生可以根据头脑中对文章和选项的初步了解和自己的笔记,给要填充的文章部分和选项的关系作出一个假定的模式,将选项按这一模式放回到文章中.因为各个分论点之间大多是并列关系,这时候就可以锁定某一个具体的分论点,着重阅读与此分论点相关的解释和说明.既然选项内容是用来证明或者阐释分论点的,那么它与文章中已经给出的解释和说明部分在内容上和意义上应该具有很大的一致性,考生可以凭此确定答案选项. (4)检查修正.不管时间充裕与否,考生都应该在做出答案后抓紧时间检查一遍.也就是对全文进行第三次阅读.这一次阅读考生可以只将注意力放在选项和与选项相关的内容部分,检查一下二者是否搭配得当. (四)大纲样题分析(Sample 3)见2003年真题分析 信息搭配之根据内容选标题(概括大意) (一)解题指导 该类型的试题一般以议论文的形式出现,考查的是考生对于文章各个段落的主旨的把握,即总结归纳段落大意的能力.试题要求考生阅读一篇500字左右的文章,该文章由若干段落组成.选项是对各个段落主旨的概括,而且选项数量通常多于段落数量.考生在宏观理解各个段落的基础上,为其选出合适的选项,相当于为各个段落选出小标题. (二)解题步骤 (1)阅读选项.这类题型的选项通常是6—7个以小标题形式出现的简短的句子,尽管有一两个干扰项,但是不会浪费考生过多的时间和精力.考生首先浏览一下各个选项,便可以初步推测出文章的大概内容,了解到文章主要描述的对象或者主要谈论的话题.而且这些选项句子简短,也方便考生记忆.必要时,考生可以做些笔记,略去修饰词语记下关键词汇,诸如疑问词,动词,名词等. (2)段落阅读.在步骤一中,考生已经初步推测出了文章的内容,现在在这一基础上迅速地通读全文,确定文章的话题和主旨.因为考试时间有限,所以不考的段落可以略去不看.对于所考段落的阅读应异常仔细认真,切忌瞻前顾后,因为这种题型侧重考查考生总结各个段落中心大意的能力,与上下文并没有太多关联,考生可以逐段完成.在阅读各个段落时,应注意不要抓住某一段落逐字逐句的分析阅读,以勉浪费时间.正确的做法是先看首尾两句.英文写作的主要方法有两种,一种是演绎法,即在段落或文章的开始提出主旨,接下来进行分析阐释.另一种是归纳法,基本结构是,先给出一系列的现象、例子,然后分析归纳,总结出大意.而在这两种主要的写作方法中,演绎法又更受青睐.因此,考生应该重点看第一句,捎带阅读一下紧跟其后的内容,这样就能够看出首句与下文的关系,从而确定是否第一句就是段落的主旨句.如果不是,再看最后一句.如果首尾都得不出结论,再考虑阅读整个段落.找出段落大意之后,再与选项做比较,确定正确答案. (三)解题技巧以及应该注意的问题技巧 (1)找出三个关键.三个关键的具体内容是:段落的关键部分,关键部分的关键句子,关键句子中的关键词语.找出三个关键的过程也就是缩小阅读范围,找出段落主旨的过程.英语文章中的主题部分通常由比较复杂的句子体现出来,考生在阅读时应该看句子的主干成分,以及主干成分中的关键词语. (2)辨认主题句.大量的研究发现,主题句也是有一定规律的.第一,一般疑问句不能做主题句.因为一般疑问句有肯定和否定两种答案,而主题只能有一个,所以考生遇到一般疑问句可以跳过去,把注意力转移到相关答案上.第二,举例子的句子不是主题句.一般情况下,文中的例子都是用来说明阐释文章主旨的,他们本身不能做主题.第三,特殊疑问句可能是主题句.特殊疑问句,尤其是How,What,Why等几个特殊疑问词引导的特殊疑问句作为主题句有很大的可能性.如果段落中出现这样的句子,其他内容大多是围绕这个问题的回答或者评论. (3)熟悉几种句型.第一,递进关系.在阅读包含not only,but also这类连词的句子时,重点放在but also 后面.第二,让步、转折关系.考生在阅读含有表让步(如even if,although, despite that)的词的句子时,应该把注意力放在主句上;而含有表转折关系的连词(如however,but)的词的句子时,则注意力放在转折之后的部分.第三,宾语从句.在宾语从句中,表达观点和态度的从句往往是重点. (4)重点词汇.在任何一个段落或者一篇文章中,反复出现的词汇都是重点词汇,应该予以重视.除了出现频率较多的词汇之外,以特殊形式出现的词汇,诸如黑体字,斜体字,括号里,引号里的字也不容忽视. 其他应该注意的问题包括:(1)个个突破.考生要明确考查目标,这类题型考查的是归纳总结能力,并非逻辑推理能力,所以重点应该放在各个小的考查点上,不要反复阅读全文. (2)顺序问题.先将有把握的选项填好,不要在拿不准的地方浪费时间. (3)避免重复,转移为佳.选项不会是对原文的简单重复,大多是对原文的转译.考生应该避开反复的简单重复原文的选项. (四)大纲样题分析(Sample 4) Directions: You are going to read a list of headings and a text about plagiarism in the academic community. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-F for each numbered paragraph (41-45). The first and last paragraphs of the text are not numbered. There is one extra heading which you do not need to use. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points) [A] What to do as a student? [B] Various definitions of plagiarism [C] Ideas should always be sourced [D] Ignorance can be forgiven [E] Plagiarism is equivalent to theft [F] The consequences of plagiarism Scholars, writers and teachers in the modern academic community have strong feelings about acknowledging the use of another person's ideas. In the English-speaking world, the term plagiarism is used to label the practice of not giving credit for the source of one's ideas. Simply stated, plagiarism is "the wrongful appropriation or purloinning, and publication as one's own of the ideas, or the expression of ideas of another." 41. The penalties for plagiarism vary from situation to situation. In many universities, the punishment may range from failure in a particular course to expulsion from the university. In the literary world, where writers are protected from plagiarism by international copyright laws, the penalty may range from a small fine to imprisonment and a ruined career. Protection of scholars and writers, through the copyright laws and through the social pressures of the academic and literary communities, is a relatively recent concept. Such social pressures and copyright laws require writers to give scrupulous attention to documentation of their sources. 42. Students, as inexperienced scholars themselves, must avoid various types of plagiarism by being self-critical in their use of other scholars' ideas and by giving appropriate credit for the source of borrowed ideas and words, otherwise dire consequences may occur. There are at least three classifications of plagiarism as it is revealed in students' inexactness in identifying sources properly. They are plagiarism by accident, by ignorance, and by intention. 43. Plagiarism by accident, or oversight, sometimes is the result of the writer's inability to decide or remember where the idea came from. He may have read it long ago, heard it in a lecture since forgotten, or acquired it second-hand or third-hand from discussions with colleagues. He may also have difficulty in deciding whether the idea is such common knowledge that no reference to the original source is needed. Although this type of plagiarism must be guarded against, it is the least serious and, if lessons learned, can be exempt from being severely punished. 44. Plagiarism through ignorance is simply a way of saying that inexperienced writers often do not know how or when to acknowledge their sources. The techniques for documentation-note-taking, quoting, footnoting, listing bibliography—are easily learned and can prevent the writer from making unknowing mistakes or omissions in his references. Although 'there is no copyright in news, or in ideas, only in the expression of them,' the writer cannot plead ignorance when his sources for ideas are challenged. 45. The most serious kind of academic thievery is plagiarism by intention. The writer, limited by his laziness and dullness, copies the thoughts and language of others and claims them for his own. He not only steals, he tries to deceive the reader into believing the ideas are original. Such words as immoral, dishonest, offensive, and despicable are used to describe the practice of plagiarism by intention. The opposite of plagiarism is acknowledgement. All mature and trustworthy writers make use of the ideas of others but they are careful to acknowledge their indebtedness to their sources. Students, as developing scholars, writers, teachers, and professional leaders, should recognize and assume their responsibility to document all sources from which language and thoughts are borrowed. Other members of the profession will not only respect the scholarship, they will admire the humility and honesty. 一、文章总体分析 本文是关于学术抄袭的说明文.该文章层次分明,先介绍什么是抄袭,包括给它下定义;接着说明对抄袭的惩罚,以及学生抄袭的三种类型;最后指出学术界人士应该避免抄袭. 第一段:给抄袭下定义. 第二段:介绍对抄袭的不同处罚. 第三至六段:用分类法说明学生抄袭的三种情况. 第七段:指出学术界人士应该尊重知识,避免抄袭. 二、试题具体分析 (一)迅速阅读选项,了解选项及文章大意. 这种题型的选项一般置于文章前面,表达简洁明了,容易理解.迅速浏览一下其大意后,可以推测出该文章的主要话题是抄袭.(选项翻译见全文翻译) (二) 阅读所考段落,概括段落大意 接下来的主要工作是概括所考查段落的主旨,可通过寻找段落主题句完成. 第一段给学术抄袭下定义. (1)第41题所在段落即第二段说明了抄袭在不同情况下所受到的处罚.段首句是主题句.段中出现了penalty,punishment,fine,imprisonment,a ruined career等关键词表明了关于惩罚的各种形式.[F]项中consequences(后果)虽然是个中性词,但它可以概括所有的处罚类型,此外没有更合适的选项. (2)第三段的首句指出,学生必须严格要求自己,注明借用观点或者词语的出处,以避免各种形式的抄袭.这显然是[A]项概括的内容.但这里考生匆忙之中也可能会选择[B]项,因为该段的末尾作者提到了抄袭的三种形式,即by accident, by ignorance, and by intention(偶然抄袭,无知抄袭,有意抄袭).但是因为该段只是提到这三种抄袭形式,对它们做出确切完整的定义和分析的内容出现在下面三段中,因此[B]项放在这里并不恰当. (3)第四段解释了造成了偶然抄袭的原因.该段前面部分用两个he may... 平行结构的句子说明了抄袭者抄袭的种种原因.考生应该注意的是这段段尾有一个表示让步转折关系的连词although,转折后的内容才是作者真正想表达的.最后一句作者指出,如果吸取教训,这类抄袭行为可以免受严重的惩罚.只有[D]项概括了这句话的内容.其中can be forgiven对应原文中的can be exempt from being severely punished. (4)第五段作者主要讨论的是无知抄袭,以及如何避免此类行为.同样这一段落也以一个转折关系的句子结尾.同理,该句才是段落主题句.它提到,尽管除了信息、观点的表达之外,信息和观点本身并没有版权可言,但是当观点来源受到置疑时,作者仍无法为自己的无知辩护.换言之,也就是说仍应该注意观点的来源.选项为[C].该段虽然出现了ignorance一词,但不能因此就选择[D]项.因为整个段落强调的是应该学会标注引用的来源.由此可见,考生不能因为出现个别词语而做出判断,而应该以各段主旨为依据. (5)第六段中作者换用thievery,steal,deceive等多个表示盗窃的词语来说明抄袭这一行径,而且段落开始的时候,有这样一句话:最严重的学术盗窃是有意抄袭.因此[E]项最能概括这一段的中心内容. 三、全文翻译 现代学术界的学者、作家和教师对于承认引用另外一人的观点反应强烈.在讲英语的国家中,抄袭一词被用来指那些不指明所引用观点的来源的行为.简言之,抄袭就是不道德地剽窃或盗用他人想法或者想法的表达,并将其据为己有公之于众的行径. 抄袭的后果([F]) 对抄袭的惩罚视情形严重而定.在许多大学,轻则某一门课程不及格,重则被学校开除学籍.在有国际版权法保护作家不受版权侵犯的文艺界,处罚小至小笔数额的罚款,大到监禁,甚至整个事业都会付诸东流.目前,通过版权法和来自学术界、文艺界的社会压力保护学者和作家是一个相当新的概念.这些社会压力和版权法要求作者在引用他人的原始文献资料时应尤为谨慎. 作为学生该怎么做?([A]) 学生,作为毫无经验的学者,在引用其他学者的观点时应该严格要求自己,注明借用观点或者词语的出处,以避免各种形式的抄袭,否则就会产生极其严重的后果.在学生没有准确确认资料来源的情况中暴露出来的抄袭至少可以分为以下三种形式:偶然抄袭,无知抄袭和有意抄袭. 无知可以被谅解([D]) 出于偶然或疏忽的抄袭,有时候是作者对于观点的来源不能确定或记忆的结果.这些观点,作者可能是在很久以前读到的,也可能是在某个已经忘记的讲座中听到的,或者是在和同行讨论中获得的二手的或者三手的资料.他也许很难界定此观点是否已经普及到不需要标明任何原始来源的程度.尽管这类抄袭也必须防范,但它是程度最轻的,如果吸取教训,可以免除严重的惩罚. 观点总是应该标明出处([C]) 无知抄袭简单地说是指缺乏经验的作者常常不知道该如何标注,何时标注自己引文的来源.一些技巧如资料笔记、引文、脚注、参考书目列表等,学起来是很容易,而且可以防止作者在参考中因为无知而犯错误.尽管除了信息、观点的表达之外,信息和观点本身并没有版权可言,但是当观点来源受到置疑时,作者仍无法为自己的无知辩护. 抄袭等同于盗窃([E]) 最严重的学术盗窃是有意抄袭.由于自身的懒惰和愚钝,作者抄袭他人的观点和语言,并据为己有.这类作者不仅剽窃,而且绞尽脑汁欺骗读者相信自己所言是原始观点.人们常常用无道德、不诚实、冒犯无礼、卑鄙等词汇来形容有意抄袭这一行径. 与抄袭相对的是承认引用并对其作者表示感谢.所有考虑充分的、值得信赖的作家都会借用其他人的观点,但他们很谨慎地承认自己受惠于引文来源.学生,作为正在发展的学者、作家、教师,以及一些专业领头人,应该认识到并承担自己对借用了语言或思想的所有引文来源的责任.这样,本专业的其他成员,不仅会尊重学问,也会敬仰谦虚和诚实. 多余选项翻译: [B]关于抄袭的多个定义 (五)大纲样题分析(Sample 5)见2004年真题分析 第四部分阅读理解C部分命题的特点和规律 英译汉是硕士研究生入学英语试题阅读理解的一部分,其目的是测试考生正确理解书面英语材料的能力.《大纲》规定英译汉通常是一篇400字左右的短文,要求考生在30分钟内,在对原文准确理解的基础上,将5个划线的英语部分准确、完整、通顺地译成汉语. 翻译是一种跨语言的文化交流.作为文化的载体,不同文化的语言都具有其自身的特征.就英汉两种语言而言,英语是一种形合(hypotaxis)的语言,而汉语则是意合(parataxis)的语言.这意味着英语句子中需要靠使用连词或关联词去表示各个部分的逻辑关系,而汉语句与句之间的种种逻辑关系则"隐含"于上下文中.如:I shall be very disappointed if you do not come.(你不来我会失望的.) 英语中主句和从句需要if来连接,否则其不成为一个完整的句子.而汉语中则无须"如果"之类的词亦可表达此意,译成"如果你不来,那么我会失望的"反而令人觉得生硬别扭. 然而这并不是说,汉语中没有形合句.事实上,汉语的形合句有时会显得语气庄重,措辞严谨.就科技文体而言,形合句有利于清晰地译出原句内部所含的因果、目的、转折、选择、并列、条件、递进等关系.句子的承前启后更是离不开形合句. 在词序方面,两种语言亦不尽相同.虽然这两种语言的主谓宾的位置比较相似,然而状语、定语等等的位置有相同之处,亦有不同之处. 第一,英语的状语从句位置灵活,可以放在主句的前面或者后面,而汉语中则一般放在主句的前面.在状语的顺序上,英语一般为:方式状语+地点状语+时间状语,而汉语则是:时间状语+地点状语+方式状语. 第二,汉语的定语在大部分情况下是在被修饰词的前面,而英语的定语则可放在被修饰词之前(如形容词、名词修饰)或之后(如定语从句等修饰). 第三,英语多长句、松散句(句子中心在句首),而汉语多短句和圆周句(句子中心在句尾). 英汉两种语言还有很多方面不同,如英语中名词使用的频率比汉语中高一些,而汉语中动词使用频率较英语高,这意味着许多英语中的名词需要译成汉语中的动词才能符合汉语习惯.如: The emphasis on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.(2003年第63题) 译文:强调收集第一手资料,加上在分析过去和现在文化形态时采用跨文化视角,使得这一研究成为一门独特并且非常重要的社会科学. 句子的主语是一个含动词意义的名词构成的词组emphasis on data,为了符合中文行文习惯,它要采用名词转换成动词的译法,即应译为"强调资料(的收集)",而不是"对(收集的)资料的强调".句子中有两个过去分词结构修饰名词的形式,即data gathered first-hand 和a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis.它们若采用直译的方法也不符合汉语习惯,因此转换为带动词性质的动宾结构,即不直译为"被第一手收集的资料"和"被用来分析的跨文化视角",而意译为"收集第一手资料"和"分析…时采用跨文化视角". 此外,英汉在词的搭配能力上的区别也很大.英语动词和名词的搭配和汉语有相同的地方,但是更多的是不同.因此,要根据汉语的搭配去选择词语. 一、英译汉部分的命题基本指导思想 1命题基本指导思想和评分标准 (1)命题指导思想 《大纲》规定:英译汉试题命题的基本原则是避免内容不健康的、带有各种偏见的语言材料;试题无科学性错误;侧重运用能力的考查.英译汉部分的命题指导思想是适当降低英译汉文章的难度,以便要求考生在对文章深层次理解的同时,掌握并运用最基本的英译汉技巧. (2)评分标准 研究生入学考试英译汉的标准,一是"忠于原文",二是"通顺".所谓"忠于原文",就是说译文要准确地表达原文的内容和观点,不得随意增补,不能遗漏,不能加入自己的立场观点.当然,"忠于原文"并不是要逐字逐句地机械地翻译.过分拘泥于原文反而经常造成译文的生涩难懂."通顺",则是指译文语言合乎汉语的规范和语言习惯,不要有语病、错别字,力求做到明白晓畅. 命题小组制定的评分标准主要有: 第一,如果句子译文扭曲原文意思,其得分最多不得超过1分.也就是说,如果考生译文和原文意思大相径庭,或与原文意思相悖,即使汉语表达得再流利,得分也不能超过1分. 第二,如果出现两种或两种以上正确译法,给分;其中一种译法错误者,酌情扣分,扣分最多不超过1分.某些考生做此部分试题的时候提供了两种或两种以上的译文.如果他提供的多种译文都正确,则给分;如果提供的译文中有一种译法错误,则酌情扣分,但是扣分不能超过1分. 第三,汉语错别字,不个别扣分,按整篇累计扣分.在不影响意思的前提下,满三个错别字扣0.5分,无0.25扣分. 2.试题材料的选取 通过对历年试题的分析可知,英译汉部分试题命制的材料主要取自社会生活、科普知识、文化教育这几个方面. 社会生活主要涉及:法律教育、欧洲电视媒体、人口爆炸、噪音、儿童教育、资料收集、大学生、城市生活、办公室、职业选择、标准化教育、心理测试、历史学家、行为科学和文化人类学. 科普方面主要有:核辐射、太阳能、电的应用、矿物燃料、电视、能源危机、智商、建筑、技术和工具革新、科学研究取得进步的原因、天文科幻、未来世界等. 文化教育方面主要涉及广义的教育、达尔文论智力、对"知识分子"的定义. 近十年英译汉部分命题的文章篇幅不长,大约400词左右,词汇量一般也没有超出大纲规定的范围.命题主要是对文章中的长难句,包含习惯用法的句子的理解及其翻译.英译汉部分的文章具有如下特点: 第一,在用词方面,往往用比较正式的词. 第二,文章内容比较抽象、句子长、成分复杂(从句多,有时一个句子中的从句竟有好几个).设置试题的句子平均长度是35词.文章中的定语从句、宾语从句、被动语态、代词指代和比较状语从句是试题命制的重点.例如,代词指代是指this,that,it,they等词的指代.在文章中,它们往往不是单纯地代表另一个简单名词,而是出现代指上文或下文的一件事、一句话等复杂的情况.比较状语从句也很少是两个事物数量、程度等具体方面的比较,取而代之的是指较为复杂的、抽象意义上的比较. 此外,此类文章的特点还体现在被动句数量非常多.这些特点给考生增添了很大难度.在翻译这类文体时,要求译成准确、简洁、符合规范的中文. 二、英译汉部分试题命制的特点 1.句子长且结构复杂、内容抽象. 主要表现在句子字数多,从句多,并且有被动句、抽象名词,给考生的理解带来困难.如: On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the other with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed. 译文:总的来说,得出这种结论是有一定把握的,但是必须具备两个条件:能够假定这个孩子对测试的态度和与他比较的其他孩子的态度相同;他也没有因为缺乏别的孩子具有的有关知识而被扣分. 这个句子由56个词组成,是一并列复合句.句子前后两部分由but连接表转折,是并列的两个分句.but之后又有两个only if引导的条件从句,其中还出现了定语从句、省略现象.句子不可谓不复杂. They are the possessions of the autonomous (self -governing) man of traditional theory, and they are essential to practices in which a person is held responsible for his conduct and given credit for his achievements.( 2002年第64题) 译文:自由和尊严(它们)是传统理论定义的自主人拥有的,是要求一个人对自己的行为负责并因其业绩而被给予肯定的必不可少的前提. 这个句子有35个词,由两个并列句组成,包含了一个定语从句、两个被动语态,许多词比较抽象,需要就文章的内容给出合适的解释,如possessions, autonomous, practices 等等. 2.文章摘自原版读物或刊物. 很多句子表意方式、语序方面体现了英语语言的习惯和特点,增加了试题的难度. 如: Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools. 译文:他们(新学派科学家们)说,科学的发展与其说源于天才伟人的真知灼识,不如说源于改进了的技术和工具等等更为普通的东西. 句子中的not so much...as是典型的英语表达方式,汉语无对等结构,所以成为解题的难点,需要考生有一定的理解能力和语言转换能力. Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its population to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable support for all, people will have to accept more "unnatural food". 译文:除非人类终于意识到要把人口减少到这样的程度,使地球能为所有人类提供足够的饮食,否则人们将不得不接受更多的"人造食品". 这种以 until或not...until连接的句子体现了英、美人的思维方式.在英汉翻译时要调整句序,才符合中文的表达习惯. 3.划线部分的理解与翻译对上下文的依赖性很强. 这样命题的目的是要求考生在读懂全文的基础上对相关部分进行翻译,这就是2002年试卷把英译汉并入阅读理解部分的原因.因此,考生在翻译过程中要把准确理解原文的意义作为重要的环节去对待.例如: To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity. 译文:批评智力测试不反映上述情况,犹如批评温度计不能测风速一样. 这个句子中it, such failure都有所指代,需要根据上下文判断具体指代何物,否则无法正确理解全句. 4.试题中的词汇一词多义现象比较多,要求考生根据句子内容确定词义后再对词义进行引申. 在翻译时如果不考虑上下文的需要,照搬词典的解释,硬译成汉语,将使译文生硬,不能准确表达原文的意义. Probably there is not one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though differing in degree, as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena. 译文:在座的诸位中,大概不会有人一整天都没有机会进行一连串复杂的思考活动.这些思考活动与科学家在探索自然现象原因时经历的思考活动,尽管复杂程度不同,但是在类型上是完全一样的. 句中的course, reason, train等词,无不有一个以上的意思,这就需要根据上下文选择正确的意项.如train在这的意思是"一串…",而不作"火车"解. 三、英译汉部分试题的解题技巧 透彻的理解是做好翻译题的前提.透彻的理解是指对作者的观点态度了解清楚.考生要把题目中的各个部分句子的相互关系搞清楚.对于较长的句子可以首先划出句子的主干,然后再看剩下的部分在句中对于主干是什么关系. 在动手翻译之前,考生应当首先把这篇四百字左右的短文当作泛读题看一遍,主要是对全文的大意、段落之间的关系有所了解.在不影响对文章主旨的理解的情况下,若有不懂的句子大可不必在意.下一步考生可以逐句地对五个划线部分的句子精读一番,争取对各个句子有准确的理解,这样才可能进行准确的翻译. 之所以强调对全文的阅读,是因为许多考生在不通读全文的情况下光读几个考题而出现理解的偏差.这样做得不到高分,因为许多句子牵涉到对上下文的整体理解,如果不通读全文就无法做到正确地理解,更谈不上正确地翻译.在理解之后再动手翻译,争取一次到位,而不要译完一半时发现理解错误后,全部推翻已译内容并重新开始翻译,这样反而耽误时间. 以下就翻译文章的具体特点,谈谈考生需要掌握的翻译技巧: 1.被动语态的翻译 在命制试题过程中,选用的文章大多是正式的文体.这类文章的特点之一是被动句很多,因为这类文章客观性很强,而被动语态是使文章客观化的手段之一.不但如此,在英语正式文体中还有其他表示被动的方法,如在名词后加-ee表示动作的承受者(如trainee, employee, addressee, payee 分别表示受训者,受雇者,收件人,收款人);形容词以 -able、-ible结尾和由过去分词转换的形容词,大多含有被动意义,如:visible stars(看得见的星星),navigable rivers(可通航的海湾)等等.介词短语,过去分词短语有时也能表示被动意义. 汉语中的被动句不占优势.英文中大部分的被动句都可以译为汉语的主动句,只有在强调被动意义时才使用被动句.但是在汉语的主动句中,有的在逻辑上是被动句,如:"文章写完了".在这样的句子中,主语不是谓语的动作施行者,而是承受者.汉译时应该灵活采取相应的形式.此外,汉语本身特有一些表示被动的语言手段可以加以利用.为了使译文符合汉语习惯,翻译被动句时,常常可以用以下几种方法: (1)被动句的主语仍译为主动句的主语. The car was severely damaged beyond any means of repair while the driver was safe and sound. 译文:汽车损坏严重,已无法修理,而驾车者却安然无恙. The discovery is highly appreciated in the circle of science. 译文:此项发现得到科学界的高度评价.(或:科学界对此项发现给予高度评价.) (2)将被动句译成主动句,有时外加泛指人称代词"人们","有人","大家","我们"做主语. Rubber is found to be a good isolating material. 译文:人们发现,橡胶是一种良好的绝缘材料. The area has been marked out for building more hotels. 译文:人们划出这块地区用于建造更多的旅店. (3)把by 后动作的执行者做主语,英文原句中的主语做宾语. The result of the invention of the steam engine was that human power was replaced by mechanical power. 译文:蒸汽机发明的结果是机械力代替了人力. What measures have been or are being adopted by the government to reduce air pollution? 译文:政府已经采取或正在采取哪些措施去降低空气的污染程度呢? (4)译成汉语中的无主句. 若根据上下文或特定情景,对行为主体一目了然,或者出于礼貌和婉转起见,可以采用这种译法. The amount of carbon monoxide that an engine gives off can be reduced by special devices designed to make the engine burn the fuel more efficiently. 译文:使发动机更有效地燃烧燃料而设计的特殊装置可以降低发动机一氧化碳的排放量. Additional International Standards may be added to the series in the future. 译文:将来还可能对本系列标准增加若干项国际标准. (5)改译成汉语的判断句,即带表语的主动句. 如"是由…"、"是因…"、"是在…"等等.被动语态是表示一种状态时可以译成汉语的判断句型. My first forty years were spent in Southern Europe. 译文:我的前四十年在南欧度过. These machines are operated by a worker only. 译文:这些机器只由一名工人操纵. (6)译成正常的被动句,以突出被动意义. 这不仅包括被字句,还包括汉语特有的表示被动的手段,如"受、被、叫、挨、让、给、遭、由、为、为…所…、把、加以、使"等等都可以表示被动意义. In industry, natural materials difficult to get are often replaced by plastics. 译文:在工业中,不易获得的天然材料常常被塑料代替. Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science. 译文:工具和技术本身作为根本性创新的源泉,多年来在很大程度上被历史学家和科学的思想家忽视了. Problems should be resolved in good time. 译文:问题应该及时加以解决. The Apollo Ⅻ crew reported that their spaceship was being followed by two UFOs. 译文:阿波罗十二号的宇航员曾报告说,它们的宇宙飞船正遭到两个不明飞行物的跟踪.(用"遭到") For separating iron from the impurities the iron ore must be melted. 译文:为了使铁跟杂质分离,铁矿石必须经过冶炼. 常见的被动式句型译法: It cannot be denied that...不可否认 It has been illustrated that...据说明;据图示;图中表示 It has been proved that...已经证明 It is(usually) considered that...据(通常)估计;人们(通常)认为 It is assumed that...假定 It is believed that...大家相信 It is alleged that...据称 It is demonstrated that...已经证明,文中(图中)表明 It is estimated that...据估计 It is expected that...人们希望 It is found that...据发现;人们认为 It is generally agreed/recognized that...人们通常认为/承认 It is hoped/still to be hoped that...(我们)希望/仍希望 It is mentioned that...据说 It is noticed /noted that...人们注意到/前面已经指出 It is proposed that...有人提议(指出) It is recommended that...有人推荐 It is regarded that...人们认为 It is reported that...据报道 It is said that...据说 It is stressed that...人们强调说 It is supposed that...据推测;假定 It is thought that...有人认为 It is universally accepted that...普遍认为 It is well known that...众所周知 It must be admitted that...必须承认 It should be pointed out that...必须指出 It will be seen from it that...由此可见 2.定语从句的翻译 在语法上,定语从句是对先行词的修饰语,但是从定语从句的作用来看,它还可以用作补充或说明先行词的附加语、同位语和描述语.此外,在有些英语的定语从句和主句之间还存在状语关系.一般而言,对限制性定语从句采取前置法或后置法或融合法,而对先行词加以进一步地描写、解释或叙述的非限制性定语从句采取的是前置法或后置法.较长的定语从句采取后置法,而较短的采取前置法.事实上,翻译没有定规,它需要根据汉语习惯去灵活处理. (1)前置法 译成"…的".一般针对比较短的限制性定语从句. The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并且给以精确而严谨的解释的表达方式. (2)后置法 用"这个"、"这"或重复先行词的办法去引导另起一个句子;有时省略先行词另起一句;有时灵活处理成并列分句.这种方法适合比较长的限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的翻译. They would have had to live the rest of their lives under the stigma that he had recklessly precipitated an action which wrecked the Summit Conference and conceivably could have launched a nuclear war. 译文:他们可能不得不背着一种臭名而终其余生,这个臭名就是:他曾冒然采取一项行动,这项行动破坏了首脑会晤,并且可以设想,还可能已经触发一场核战争.(较长的限制性定语从句,重复"这个臭名") It is he who received the letter that announced the death of his uncle. 译文:是他接到了那封信,说他的叔叔去世了.(限制性定语从句,后置省略先行词) I told the story to John,who told it to his brother. 译文:我把这件事情告诉了约翰,约翰又告诉了他的弟弟.(非限制性定语从句后置处理成并列分句,重复先行词"约翰") Christmas carols are loved by all who hear and sing it every year. 译文:圣诞颂歌为大家喜爱,人们每年都欣赏和演唱.(非限制性定语从句后置处理成并列分句,重复先行词"人们") World War II was, however, more complex than World War Ⅰ, which was a collision among the imperialist powers over the spoils of markets, resources and territories. 译文:第一次世界大战是帝国主义列强之间争夺市场、资源和领土的冲突,而第二次世界大战却比第一次复杂.(非限制性定语从句前置) In such an experiment the insects can be taught to fly to the ultra-violet,which for us is just darkness. 译文:在这样的实验中,能够训练昆虫飞向紫外线,而紫外线对我们来说只是一片黑暗.(非限制性定语从句后置,重复先行词) (3)融合法 融合法就是把限制性定语从句与主句融合成一句话. There are many people who want to read the book. 译文:许多人想读这本书.(融合成一句话,一般适用于There be句型) Home workers are people who have made decisions regarding their careers and life-styles. 译文:在家工作的人是按照自己的职业和生活方式做出这种决定的. 3.抽象名词的译法 科技英语中有名词化的倾向.这其中包括一些由动词变过来的动作名词和动名词,如examination,examing.这样的抽象名词本身就含有很强的动词意味,故在翻译的时候经常转译成动词.此外,还有一些是形容词加后缀 -ity,- ness, -ability构成的名词,翻译的时候可以灵活译成相应的动词、状语(从句)、分句、意合句等等. We were caught up in a discussion about the situation in Afghanistan when the professor walked into the classroom. 译文:当教授走进教室时,我们正在兴致勃勃地讨论阿富汗局势. It would be wise to handle this delicate problem with calmness and patience. 译文:冷静耐心地处理这个微妙的问题是明智的. Even an elementary knowledge of statistics is sufficient to enable the journalist to avoid misleading his readers. 译文:即使只懂得一点统计学的初步知识,也足以使记者避免报道失真.(名词词组译成状语从句) 4.正义反译和反义正译 正义反译和反义正译要求译者对一些无法直接用汉语的相同结构进行表达的语言结构和表达方式从相反的角度进行转换.英汉两种语言习惯不同,要加强修辞效果,或要更确切地表达原文的含义,翻译时如果用正面表达原文出现困难,那么不妨试着用反面表达,或将原文的反面表达改用正面表达,使译文更流畅. There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior referred to by the term than there is on how to interpret or classify them. 译文:人们对智力这个词所指的不同表现意见比较一致,而对这些表现如何解释或分类则有不同的看法.(more A than B 实质上是对B的否定,因此我们可以把B 部分用否定法译出,正义反译the term根据上下文译为"智力这个词") And the cycle continues. 译文:如此循环,永不止息.(正义反译) It cannot be too much emphasized that listening is the most important in learning English. 译文:应当特别强调,听力在英语学习中是最重要的问题.(反义正译) 类似的结构还有:cannot...enough;cannot...more;cannot...sufficient;cannot sufficiently;cannot...overcharged(以及其他由over-构成的复合词),这些结构可以译为"无论怎么…也不过分". The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention from the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users. 译文:把标准化测试作为抨击目标是错误的,因为在抨击这类测试时,批评者不考虑其弊病来自人们对测试不甚了解或使用不当. (divert attention from译成"不考虑".正义反译) The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方法不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并给予准确而严谨解释的表达方式.(nothing but 译成"只不过",反义正译) The United Nations has not, so far, justified the hopes which the people of the world set on it. 译文:迄今为止,联合国辜负了世界人民寄予的希望.(反义正译) I thus appeared to them to be quite familiar with this sort of situation, and it confirmed them in their belief that I was a thoroughly disreputable character. 译文:这样一来,在他们眼里,我就像是非常熟悉这一套的了,也使他们更加确信我是一个地地道道的坏蛋.(正义反译) To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity. 译文:批评智力测试不反映上述情况,犹如批评温度计不能够测风速一样. such failure是正面表达,但是从上下文看,是指An intelligence test does not measure character, social adjustments...,所以译成"不反映上述情况". Galileo's greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth. 译文:伽利略的最光辉的业绩在于他在1609年第一个把新发明的望远镜对准天空,以求证实行星是围绕太阳旋转,而不是围绕地球旋转.(rather than是正面表达,但是它含否定意思,应该译成"而不是") 有如下词语经常用正反、反正译法: 动词:fail, miss, lack, live up to, ignore, refuse, withhold, neglect, refrain, deny, overlook, exclude 名词:absence, failure, refusal, ignorance, neglect, exclusion 形容词:few, little, free from, far from, short of, safe from, thin, worthy of, ignorant... 副词:little, less, otherwise, too...to..., vainly 连词:more...than, unless, before, until, rather than, or 介词:without, about, except, beyond, instead of, in place of, out of 5.习惯用法的翻译 研究生入学考试中,经常出现一些习惯用法和短语.许多考生因为对此不知道或不敏感,以至对原文的理解产生偏差,甚至产生完全错误的理解,所以,牵涉到习惯用法和短语的部分考生往往失分严重. 我们有必要掌握一些经常在考研题中出现的习惯用法和短语. 现将考研题中经常出现的习惯用法归纳如下: (1)more A than B, less B than A,not so much B as/but A意思相同,用法相似,都可理解为"与其说是B,还不如说是A". 这些短语的常见意义为"比…更",如:There are more cars on the roads in summer than in winter.夏天公路上的车比冬天多.但是这个释义并不适合所有的场合.在很多情况下,这些句型中A、B表示的是不同种类的比较,而且是表示在比较的基础上的一种选择关系,应该译为"与其说…还不如说".如:Teaching can be more like guiding and assisting than forcing information into a supposedly empty head. 译文:教学与其说是把知识灌输到假定为一片空白的头脑中,还不如说是对其进行引导和帮助.(本句可理解为将"知识灌输"的行为与"引导和帮助"的行为进行对比,说明教学选择的是后一种行为.故译为"与其说…还不如说".注意译文与原文的语序相反.) It remains our view that a definition would be more likely to interfere with than to assist the competent organs of the United Nations to take quick and effective action to ensure the maintenance of peace. 译文:我们仍然认为,一项定义与其说是有助于,还不如说是有碍于联合国各个主管机构采取迅速而有效的行动确保和平. It was a curious exchange,less a debate than a quarrel between two aggressive men, each of them determined to impress the audience as more peaceful than the other. 译文:这是一次奇妙的交谈,与其说是两个好斗的人之间的一场辩论,还不如说是一次吵嘴,双方都竭力想使听众觉得自己比对方更爱和平. However, this is not so much a weakness in his work as it is the inevitable result of scholars' neglect of this period. 译文:然而,这与其说是他作品中的弱点,倒不如说是学者们忽略对这个时期的研究而造成的必然结果. (2)no more...than,not any more than表示类比,意思是"和…一样都不","不比…更". no more...than与not any more不能简单地看做more...than 的否定形式.这一结果可能是带有一定的感情色彩的否定形式,也可能是一种较特殊的类比形式. 第一种情况:表示同类否定比较,可译为"不比…更"或"都…同样不". The heart is no more intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain. 译文:心脏和胃一样无智力可言,因为它们都是由大脑控制的. The food on the ship was no better than on any other ship on which Billy had sailed. 译文:这条船上的(供应的)食品和比利工作过的其他船上的食品一样差劲. 第二种情况:表示两者的比较关系,可译为"正如…不,…也不". There is no reason they should limit how much vitamin you take, any more than they can limit how much water you drink. 译文:他们没有理由限制你服用多少维生素,正像他们不能限制你喝多少水一样.(这句话实际上是前后两部分进行比较的一种用法) No one can hold back the tide of revolution any more than a man with a broom can hold a flood that has burst the dam. 译文:任何人都无法阻挡革命洪流,正如一个人不能拿着扫帚挡住决堤的洪水一样. The archaeologists' efforts are not directed at proving the correctness of the Bible any more than belief in God can be scientifically demonstrated. 译文:考古学家的努力并不是要"验证"圣经的正确性,正如信仰上帝不能从科学上证明一样. (3)rather than很多情况下是一个表示否定的词组,译成"而不是". He rather than you is responsible for the loss. 译文:损失由他而不是你负责. Rather than a punishment or a burden, work is the opportunity to realize one's potential. 译文:工作不是惩罚,也不是负担,工作为个人潜力的发挥提供机会. (4)only too...to相当于very...to表示"非常…"、"很…". I shall be only too pleased to help him. 译文:替他帮忙我是非常高兴的. (5)cannot...too...的意思是"无论怎么也不会过分",not表示的否定也可用scarcely这样的半否定词代替,意思相似. A book may be compared to your neighbour; if it be good, it cannot last too long; if bad, you cannot get rid of it too early. 译文:一本书好比你的邻居;如果是好书,读书的时间再长也不嫌长;如果不是好书,你越早丢开它越好. One can scarcely pay too high a price for liberty. 译文:为自由人们付出多大的代价都不过分. (6)肯定句中other than 表示 different from或except,"不同于,除了";在否定句中other than相当于except"除了". Plants which refine crude ores are often located in countries other than those in which the crude ores are mined. 译文:提炼矿石的厂房通常不设在采矿石的国家,而设在其他国家. Holidays other than those in this brochure do not have free places for children. 译文:小册子上没写的节假日里小孩不免费. We missed the last bus so there was no choice other than to walk home. 译文:我们错过了最后一班公共汽车,所以除了步行回家外别无选择. (7)It is not that...but that...的意思是"这不是说,而是说",或"原因不是…,而是…". It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is a much finer apparatus and of course much more accurate in its measurement than the former. 译文:这并不是说面包师或卖肉者所用的磅秤和化学家所用的天平在构造原理或工作方式上存在差别,而是说与前者相比,后者是一种更精密得多的装置,因而在计量上必然准确得多. (8)Cannot...too"再…也不过分","应该…",参见技巧中的"正义反译和反义正译"部分. You cannot be too careful in this matter. 译文:在此事上你再仔细也不过分. We cannot estimate the value of modern science too much. 译文:对现代科学的价值再重视也不过分. (9)much less, still less 用于否定句中,表示一种追加的否定,意思为"更不用说、更不要说".类似的说法还有to say nothing of, not to speak of, not to mention, let alone,它们的意思也是"更不用说",但是肯定句和否定句都可以用. He knows little of mathematics, and still less of chemistry. 译文:他几乎不懂数学,更不用说化学了. In old China, there was hardly any machine-building industry, to say nothing of an electronic industry. 译文:在旧中国,几乎没有机器制造业,更不用说电子工业了. Some people never read a newspaper,let alone a book. 译文:有些人从未读过报纸,更不用说书本了. He is the most intelligent, not to mention handsome, people I know. 译文:他是我知道的最聪明的人之一,而且他还很英俊. (10)the last + 名词+不定式,或the last +名词+定语从句,意思是"…最不可能的,最不愿意的". You are the last person I want to see. 译文:你是我最不愿意见的人. He would be the last person to go along with the proposal. 译文:他将是最不可能同意这项提议的人. Breach of promise is the last thing that he is likely to commit. 译文:违约的事情他是绝不会干的./他决不至于干出违约的事情. (11)only to+动词"结果却…",表示出乎意料的一种结果. They don't have to pay for expensive seats at the theatre, the cinema or the opera, only to discover, perhaps, that the show is disappointing. 译文:他们不必花钱去剧院、电影院或歌剧院买价格昂贵的票,结果却发现,所演节目令人失望. I went to pay a visit to my teacher only to find that the door was locked. 译文:我去拜访老师,结果却发现大门被锁上了. (12)no...but"没有…不","任何…都". There is no man but has faults. 译文:没有人没有错误./人皆有错误. but在此是一否定关系代词,既代替前面的名词,又引出从句,而且具有否定意义,可理解为who...not, that...not, which...not.原句相当于There is no man who does not have faults. (13)would rather...than"宁愿…","与其…不如". I would rather die with my head high, with indestructible faith and profound belief in the destiny of our country, than live in humility and renounce the principles which are sacred to me. 译文:我宁愿昂着头,怀着不动摇的信念,抱着对祖国前途的真切信心而死,也不愿在屈从之下背弃神圣的原则而生.(注:would rather 在某些英语中写成had rather) (14)not nearly 相差很远,远远少于. The food supply will not increase nearly enough to match this, which means that we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and marketing food. 译文:粮食供应将远远比不上人口的增长,这意味着我们在粮食生产和购销两方面正陷入危机. (15)no less than简直是,实在是; no less... than不但…而且. It is no less than blackmail to ask such a price for a mere vase. 译文:区区一花瓶索要如此高价,简直是敲诈. There were no less than one thousand people at the meeting. 译文:到会的不少于1 000人.(强调人很多.比较There were not less than one thousand people at the meeting.到会的至少有1 000人.只说"不少于",而不强调人多人少) China insists always on the need for self-reliance, no less in economic policies than in making revolution. 译文:中国始终坚持独立自主,不但在进行革命方面,而且在经济政策方面亦如此.(注意:no less...than连接两个并列的成分,强调的重心在前面,因此汉译时被强调的部分要放在"而且"之后) (16)anything but 根本不;all but 几乎,差一点;but for、but that + 从句"要不是". Alone in a deserted house, he was so busy with his research work that he felt anything but lonely. 译文:虽然他单独一人待在这所空寂的房子里,但是他埋头于工作研究,所以一点也没有感到孤独. (anything but意思是not at all, but做介词,意为except) The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation. 译文:科学研究的方式不过是人类思维活动的必要表达方式,也就是对一切现象进行思索并给予准确而严谨的解释的表达方式. It was all but impossible to climb back into the boat. 译文:要再回到船上已几乎不可能了.(all but相当于nearly, almost) But for the rain we would have had a nice holiday. 译文:要不是因为下雨,我们的假日一定过得很惬意. But that you had seen me in the water, I would have drowned. 译文:要不是你看见我掉在水里,我早就淹死了. 6.否定的翻译法 英语中的否定有其特有的形式,在翻译中要特别重视被表达的意思是全部否定、部分否定、还是双重否定以及有没有否定转移的现象. (1)否定转移: The object did not move because I pushed on it. The object moved not because I pushed on it. 两句话的意思都是:该物体的移动不是因为我的推动所致.(第一句里有否定转移) We did not build institutes of technology to educate our boys for export. 译文:我们成立理工学院不是为了培养学生日后出国. (2)部分否定: 具有全体意义的词如all, every, both, always 等用于否定结构时,不表示全体否定,只表示其中一部分被否定.不能译做"一切都不…",而应当译成"并非一切…都是" All is not gold that glitters.闪光的东西并不一定是金子.(谚语) I do not like both of the books.这两本书我并不都喜欢. 7.句子结构和被分离结构的译法 英语中较长或较难的句子常常会出现结构分离现象,在翻译时注意要保持整个句子结构和被分离的结构的一体性. (1)不定式分离 带to的不定式通常是不拆开的,但偶尔也有将副词插入其中的情况,这就被称为分裂不定式.这种将to和后面的动词拆开的做法是为了避免由于这一插入的副词放在句中其它位置而产生的歧义,如下面两句意思可能会不同. ①He failed entirely to comprehend it. ②He failed to entirely comprehend it. 在①句中,entirely既可以看作是修饰failed,也可看作是修饰to comprehend,而在②句中则只能修饰comprehend了.因此不定式的分离是有特定作用的. 在复合不定式结构中也存在分离现象. The existence of the giant clouds was virtually required for the Big Bang, first put forward in the 1920s, to maintain its reign as the dominant explanation of the cosmos.(1998年第72题) 注意该句子中的to maintain its reign和前面的for the Big Band是一体的,它们构成了不定式的复合结构for... to do...,插入语first put forward in the 1920s将它从中间分离开来,翻译的时候要注意恢复它们的一体性,即"(使)大爆炸论得以保持其主导地位". (2)否定词位置不同 两句话中即使其它单词一模一样,如果否定词换了地方,句意也会有区别,如: ①I wasn't anxious to go.(我并不特别想去) ②I was anxious not to go.(我很想不去) ③I wasn't sorry to break the cup.(我对打碎了杯子不感到遗憾) ④I was sorry not to break the cup.(我很遗憾没有打碎这个杯子) 第五部分写作A部分命题的特点和规律 2005年研究生入学考试英语考试的变化之一是在写作部分增加了应用文写作,其目的在于考查考生进行一般性应用文写作、运用英语书面语言表达日常交际实际需要的能力.英语应用文指在日常工作和生活中应用的文体,其类型多样,包括信函、备忘录、摘要、报告、通知等.写好应用文,考生关键要掌握其宏观语篇结构与具体语言形式,即既要懂得每一类型应用文的格式与基本框架(先写什么,后写什么),又要得体地运用恰当的语言形式(包括具体的词汇和句型).由于平时考生对应用文的写作不太关注,另外由于其类型也变化多样,因此考生在复习阶段需全面熟悉常见应用文的基本格式,并多加练习,为应用文写作打下牢固的基础. 要写好应用文,应注意: (1)达到题目中的字数要求,研究生入学考试应用文一般字数要求为100字左右,篇幅过长或过短都不宜. (2)内容上在覆盖要求中的所有信息点的同时要注意语言的简炼,写作时可以利用提示语中的关键词,但不能完全照抄照搬原题提示. (3)书写格式要规范,根据不同内容,选择相应的写作格式. (4)尊重交际规则.根据应用文写作的对象和交际目的选择合适的语气和措辞. 一、信函型写作总述 书信是研究生应用文写作考查的重点. 1. 正文的必备结构 考研应用文不需要对书信格式进行复习,但需要注意信件正文的结构.信件正文结构要完整,必须包含以下四个方面: ① 称呼.正文第一行顶格写.称呼即写信人对收信人的称谓,它取决于写信人和收信人之间的关系.公务信函中称呼的一般形式是Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms./Miss +收信人的姓氏.当不知道收信人姓名时可称呼Dear Sir/Madam/Sirs/Mesdames,或To whom it may concern.写给关系密切的人时,用Dear或My dear加上称呼或对方名字.例如:My dear mother,Dear Mary等.也可以根据题目信息,用头衔、职位、职称、学位等再加姓氏或姓氏和名字.例如:Dear Prof. Zhang, Dear Dr. John Smith.常见的头衔(汉英对照)如下:教授Professor;博士Doctor(Dr.,Ph.D.); 医学博士Medical Doctor(M.D.); 总统或校长President;主席或董事长Chairman;副主席或副董事长Vice Chairman;副总统或副校长Vice President;首相Prime Minister; 总理Premier,省长或州长Governor;市长Mayor;参议员Senator;大使Ambassador;秘书长Secretary General;院长Director, Dean; 副院长Vice Director; 系主任Dean, Head, Chair; 馆长Chief Librarian, Curator. ②正文.正文是一封书信中最重要的部分,也是书信写作考查的重点.它和写短文类似,要分层次进行.正文可由一或多个段落组成,但其内容应包含三个部分:引言、发展和结尾部分.引言部分讲明写信目的(如:求职、申请学校和专业等)和写信背景(如:促使你写信的某件事或某个广告)、发展部分陈述相关要点,这部分相当于一篇文章的主体段落,内容应详实、具体.结尾部分可简要重申中间部分的要点或致谢、敦促收信人早日回信等.考生注意在写作题目要求中往往规定了很多内容要点,因此考生应按照要求逐段表达这些要点,文字要求简明准确、思路要求条理清晰,同时可以把每一点扩充成一段. 正文从称呼下一行开始,其格式有缩进式和齐头式两种.采用缩进式的正文每段第一行应往右缩进约四五个字母,第二行起从左面顶格写起.采用齐头式,则每一行都从左面顶格写起. ③结尾语.信的正文写完以后,应当有表致敬的结束语.结束语是写信人对收信人的一种客套称呼,它需要根据写信人与收信人之间的关系而定,最常见的有:Yours sincerely或Sincerely yours(适用于各种关系).比较正式的结束语有:(Very )Respectfully yours, Yours (very) respectfully,用于地位高的人或长辈;(Very)Truly yours, Yours (very )truly,用于不大熟悉而彼此间又需要客气的人;(Very )Faithfully yours, Yours (very) faithfully,用于对机关的正式函件.非正式的结束语有:Affectionately yours, Yours affectionately, Lovingly yours,用于最亲密的友人之间;Yours lovingly, Yours loving father用于亲密的家人之间;Lovingly, Devotedly, Your own, All my love用于情人、夫妻之间. 结束语只占一行,低于正文一二行,从信纸的中间或偏右的地方开始写.第一个词的首字母要大写,末尾用逗号. ④签名.在结束语下一二行,从信纸中间偏右的地方开始写.考卷中不要出现自己的真实姓名,一般用Li Ming代替. 2.语体 书信类应用文的写作中主要有正式与非正式的两种语体或者说是书面语体与口语语体.考生可根据书信类型、收信人身份选择合适的语体.如果是私人朋友间的书信就要用非正式体.而像写给上级的辞职信这样的公务信函就应该是正式的、礼貌的.有时,同一类型的书信也可以采用正式与非正式两种语体表达,如:邀请客人参加晚会的书信比较随便、简短;而邀请参加学术会议的书信则很正规.请看下列两封书信: Dear Zhao Xiang, My brother and I are going to have a small dancing party to celebrate the New Year at home. We are going to invite some old friends and hope you can come. The time is next Saturday, February 7, at seven o'clock in the evening. I know you have been very busy recently, but I do hope you can manage it. We are looking forward to your coming with great pleasure. Yours affectionately, Li Ming Dear Professor Zhang: I am pleased to inform you that Beijing QQ Technology Company is organizing a three day seminar entitled "Cruising the Internet Securely" in September 2005 in Beijing, as part of its continuous efforts to provide a platform for experts to meet and exchange expertise. You are cordially invited to participate in this important academic event of the city as our guest. Your round trip air ticket, accommodation and meal expenses will be subsidized. Should you be interested, please let us know at your earliest convenience. Look forward to seeing you in this conference, and to having you as an important part of this event. Sincerely, Li Ming Manager QQ Technology Co. Ltd Encl. Seminar Announcement, Timetable, Member List 从以上示例可以看出,正式体和非正式体书信虽然在本质上并没有什么区别,但在形式上是有差异的.正式体的书信不仅在语言文体上比非正式的要正规,而且其表达方式也不一样,往往比较注意文采,更委婉,也更详细具体. 3. 审题构思攻略 审题构思步骤可以概括为"三个确定,一个注意".1)根据写作对象确定文章用正式还是非正式的文体;2)根据题目中的关键词,确定主体内容的逻辑顺序;3)根据话题明确需要表达的感情类型,结合交际目的,确定表达方式,可以选用合适的套语.注意:要重点选用自己熟悉的表述方式. 4.写作素材准备攻略 信函是传达感情交流意见的载体,因此任何信件的都可大致分成以下方面:1 表达感情2描述事件3. 陈述意见,考研信函也不例外.要把信函写的流畅、达到交流的目的,首先需要了解情感的正确表达方式.在书信中经常体现的情感有:感激、愤怒、高兴、哀伤等.平时要留意和积累情感的表达方式(比如:it's my pleasure to…).如果在考研作文中能够把情感表达的恰如其分,自然能让文章出彩. 另外写好考研作文还需要对事件描述和意见陈述部分有所准备.考研应用文在话题选择方面有其自身的特点.从05年增加应用文考查以来,考查内容都和考生熟悉的生活有着千丝万缕的联系,或以考生日常生活场景为背景(如05年的辞职信、07年针对图书馆的建议信、08年对误拿房东CD的道歉信),或以社会热点问题为切入点(06年捐助贫困儿童的申请信、09年针对限塑令没有达到理想效果的建议信).因此考生需要准备社会热点问题的相关英语表述,可以与大作文话题准备工作同步进行.另外考生也要留意日常生活的相关英语表达,可以养成在日记中用英语描述日常生活的习惯. 二、常见信函的基本类型及内容要点 1.信的基本类型 英文书信主要分为两大类:私人信函和公务信函.私人信函是指与朋友、家人之间的往来书信,其内容比较自由,只需要包括以下几个部分即可:日期、称呼、正文、落款.公务信函类型多样,应用范围非常广泛,属正式文体,包括求职信、辞职信、拒聘信、询问信、复询信、留学和奖学金申请信、投诉信、答复赔偿信等.此类信件的共同特点是:1.内容明确,不可漫无目标;2.措辞诚恳,坦然,不能感情夸张;3.语言清晰、简洁、有礼.从形式上看应该侧重考查公务信函,因为只有此类信函才需用到书面语的正式语体. 2.各类信函的内容要点 以下主要针对公务信函,介绍几种常见信函的基本特点.对于其他不同功能的信件,考生可以根据本书的介绍做到举一反三.在备考阶段,考生应熟悉各类信函的书写模式及常用话语并加强练习. (1)求职信(Letters of Applying for a Job) 通常包含三个部分:a)引言部分写明写信原因、具体谋求的职位、获得申请信息的来源(如:报纸广告、熟人介绍)等.b)发展部分叙述自己能够胜任该职位所具备的条件,包括教育背景、工作经历、社会实践等.这部分内容要具体,不要空洞游说或者列举,用事实说服会更有力.C)结尾部分再次表达对职位的渴望,争取面试机会.如请求及时回信、希望当面洽谈、提供进一步接触的联系方式或指出附件中有相关的证明文件等. 求职信的语言应严谨、规范、得体.其常用套语有: 引言:I am writing to apply for the post of... advertised in... In answer to your advertisement in... for the post of... , Iwould like to apply for... Ihave learned from... (sb) of your opening/vacancy for... (job), and am therefore writing to apply for the post. 发展:Iam now a senior student in (Department) of (University), and Iexpect to graduate in (date) with a degree in (discipline). Ireceive my (degree) in (subject) from (name of university) in (date). Since graduation, Ihave been working with (name of company/organization) as (job title) Iwas awarded the prize of (title) in (month/year) for (eg. good performance in etc.) Iam confident that my academic training has prepared me to handle the job. 结尾:Enclosed are testimonials from my university teacher and my present employer. If these meet your requirements, please grant me an interview. 范例: Directions: You come across a want advertisement in 21st Century Talent Report for a store manager of a Panda chain restaurant. Write a letter to apply for the job by providing the following information: 1)your interest in the position, 2)your qualifications, 3)your hope for an interview opportunity. Dear Sir or Madam: Your advertisement in 21st Century Talent Report appealed to me for two reasons. I seek the opportunity to manage a newly opened store and your plan to open up a new branch of Panda restaurants can realize my wish. I am also interested in building my career in the food industry which is just your main business. Therefore, I have decided to submit my resume in application for the position of Store Manager. My relevant experience includes being a chef in a Sichuan restaurant for three years and an assistant store manager of New China restaurant till now in Beijing. I look forward to discussing opportunities at Panda with you. I will call you next week to make sure you have received my resume and to set up a mutually agreeable time for us to speak. Yours truly, Li Ming (2)辞职信(Letters of Resignation) 正式的辞职信应具备以下要素: a)受理者恰当的称呼; b)辞职决定及其理由(如:未受公司重用或尊重,健康、家庭或个人原因,另觅一份更适合自己的工作等); c)缓和气氛的语句,如对原单位所给予工作机会以及提供的工作经历表示感谢,对因自己辞职而给对方带来的不便表示歉意,表达对原单位的良好祝愿等等. 需要注意的是:避免负面评论.不论什么原因,不要对你的公司政策、老板、管理人员、同事做任何负面评价. 常用套语如下: 称呼:Dear Mr. Smith 辞职决定和理由: With regret, I am writing to inform you about my decision to resign from my current position. I hereby confirm in writing my resignation from ABC Company because of family reasons. 缓和语气的话:I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks for all the support that Ihave received over the last few weeks, and for the enjoyable experience of having worked for your company. I hope you will consider my request, and Iapologize for any inconveniences Imight have caused. I wish all of you a prosperous future 范例:2005年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (3)留学和奖学金申请信(Letters of Applying for Admittance and Scholarship) 申请者是通过申请信争取继续学习和获得奖学金的机会,而申请学校负责人则是通过该信决定其是否具有这样的机会.因此这封信需要尽可能得表现写信人所具有的优势,比如个人性格优点,学业工作成绩等等.信的内容通常涉及: a) 申请该学校/奖学金的原因; b) 使你对某个专业产生兴趣的学术背景和训练; c) 工作经验; d) 能证明你潜能的研究; e) 未来职业计划. 如果对方学校有要求,还应附上"个人简历"、学习成绩、研究成果的摘要等. 虽然申请信需要表现自己去争取机会,但其语言不应过于夸张,避免使用像excellent,remarkable,wonderful,great之类的形容词吹捧申请的学校或夸耀自己,而应自然而平实.其常用套语有: I am a student in... , expecting to graduate with a Bachelor's degree this summer. I am interested in... and plan to apply for admission for (time). Iam writing in the hope that Imay obtain an opportunity to further my study in... I should be pleased to forward my credentials, such as references, transcripts and photocopies of IELTS scores. 范例: Directions: Suppose you are a major in Environmental Engineering of Beijing University. After graduation you decide to pursue study in the graduate school in State University of New York. Write a letter of application for admission, which should include the following points: 1) make an application 2) provide your personal information and academic documents 3) express your hope for a reply To Whom It May Concern: I would like to apply for admission to the master's program in environmental science at your graduate school, beginning in fall 2006. As a bachelor of science, I will graduate from Beijing University, Beijing, China in the summer of 2005 where I majored in Environmental Engineering. I have completed all the required undergraduate courses with satisfactory scores. Official copies of my transcript and of my TOEFL and GRE scores are being sent separately from the offices concerned. Three recommendation letters are also being sent by my professors. I do not have the funds to finance my education; therefore I will be applying for an application fee waiver and full financial support from the university to cover tuition and living expenses. I look forward to your early reply. Please do not hesitate to contact me if my supporting documents are not enough for consideration of my application. You can contact me by e-mail at LiMing@yahoo.com. Thank you for your kind assistance in this matter. Sincerely, Li Ming (4)询问信(Letters of Inquiry) 询问信是请求对方提供需要信息的信件.可分三大部分:引言部分自我介绍并讲明询问目的.发展部分是询问的主要内容,如果包括多个方面,为了让对方一目了然,也便于回答,在内容的安排上应简明扼要,可以用数字列出具体问题,如first, second, third或1、2、3.结尾部分真诚地感谢对方. 由于询问有可能给对方带来麻烦,所以措辞要谦虚、诚恳.其常用套语有: 引言:As a student at... university, Iam preparing for... Your answers to the questions below would help me... As we are particularly interestedin... , we should be grateful if you would kindly... 发展:Could you please send me the relevant information and application form? 结尾:Your answer will contribute to my project. Iwould appreciate receiving your answer by... ( time ). 范例1: Directions: You are preparing for an English test and are in need of some reference books. Write a letter to the sales department of a bookstore to ask for: 1) detailed information about the books you want, 2) methods of payment, 3) time and way of delivery. Dear Sir/Madam, As a student preparing for TOEFL in the coming May, I am writing to ask if you have Approaches to TOEFL written by Professor Wang Siming and published by University College Press in 2004. If you have the book for sale, I'd like to mail order it and please let me know if I can pay for it by money order or MasterCard. I'd appreciate it if you could send me the book at your earliest convenience by EMS to the following address: Li Ming Room 239, Student Dormitory No. 11 West Campus, Baoshan University Baoshan, 103008 Thank you for your consideration. Yours truly, Li Ming 范例2: Directions: You are doing a research project on the future of the printing industry. Write a letter to the industry market analyst Mr. Wang to ask for: 1) the challenges the industry is facing 2) the role of technologies 3) the trend in the industry Dear Mr. Wang: As a student at Beijing College of printing, I am currently doing a research project on the future of the printing industry. I feel that an inside view of the market situation at this time is necessary for me to have a convincing conclusion so I am eager for your suggestions. Would you please spare a few minutes answering a few questions about the market for printing industry? 1.In general,what challenges is the printing industry facing at this time, and what types of strategies are being used to meet them? 2.What types of technologies are important to this industry at present and what technologies do you feel will play an important role in the near future? 3.Do you think that this industry will experience growth in the future, and, if so, what trends do you expect to see occurring? If you would kindly take the time to answer these questions, I'd venture to hope you can reply it before the end of April-the deadline of my report. Thank you in advance for your attention to my request. Sincerely, Li Ming (5)投诉信 投投诉信是因为对服务、商品等不满而向诸如商店、厂家、消费者协会等相关负责机构写的信件.写此类信件时候,应注意写信的目的不仅仅是表示不满,更重要的是让对方了解并解决你所遇到的问题.因此投诉信的内容可包括: 1)反映问题.比如应具体说明什么质量问题,并提供确切的发票,问题的内容要明确而具体. 2)说明由此问题所带来的不便、比如时间或精神上的损失等,内容要实事求是. 3)提出解决方案,赔偿方法和方式等,所提出的要求要合理. 4)结尾既要提出希望,比如要求对方尽快解决问题,同时又要为对方做出的努力表示感谢,这样对方才可能以积极的态度处理并解决你的问题. 投诉信的语气要坚决,但注意礼貌用词,不宜过分尖锐,叙述问题时用过去时态.其常用套语有: 引言:I am returning... which Ibought from your store in... (time). Imust complain about... 发展:This has put us to great inconvenience. Therefore, Iam returning... and would greatly appreciate if you could replace it. 结尾:We hope that you will understand our expectation of the compensation for our damaged goods. Iwould be grateful if this matter would have your immediate attention. Having been given your excellent reputation, Iam sure you will do everything possible to... 范例: Directions: You bought a pair of tennis bats (item #6542951) from website. When you received them, you found they were used with dirt all over around and a small tear in the handle. Write a letter to the customer service manager of the store to tell him about the used bats 2)ask for a refund Dear Sir or Madam: I have recently ordered a new pair of tennis bats (item #6542951) from your website on June 21. I received the order on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it I saw that the bats were used. They had dirt all over around and there was a small tear in the handle. My order number is AF26168156. To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for my bats, I have already went out and bought a new pair at my local sporting goods store so sending another would result in me having two pairs of the same bats. Thank you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many years and this is the first time I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at (555) 555-5555. Sincerely, Li Ming (6)建议信 建议信是写信人希望对解决问题有所帮助而向相关部门或者个人写的信件,其主要目的是提出自己的意见,希望对方能够采纳并采取相应行动.为了达到交际目的,所提建议要合理、可行、容易让对方接受.除此之外还需要注意语气要和善,要与对方拉近距离而不可盛气凌人. 建议信的内容一般包括:1)提出亟待解决的问题;2) 分析造成问题的原因;3)提出解决办法. 常用套语有: 提出问题:It seems that … (not have desired effects, not have obtained the full attention; be not satisfactory/ perfect; have harmful/ deadly/ serious/negative effects) I am …(deeply/ really/ seriously/ terribly/greatly) concerned / worried / sad / confused about… 分析原因:Currently, … especially … ;Therefore,… ;This leads to…; one of the factors is …; It is understood that if…it will…. 提出解决方法:In order to combat the growing problem of… , … should reduce/ increase/ ensure…; I think it would be more beneficial if you could….; I think it would be helpful to…. 范例:2007年、2009年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (7)道歉信 道歉信是写信人对未尽之事向收信人表示歉意.所有道歉信都需要注意的是:解释的理由要真实而详细,态度要诚恳、语言要诚挚,从而使收信人理解,并达到最终谅解.道歉信的内容可包括:1)表示歉意并说明道歉的事因;2)解释自己的难处或苦衷;3)请求原谅或提出补救的方法. 常用套语有: 表达歉意:There's no excuse for … I forgot to …. I am indeed very sorry for …, but believe I had no intention to… Here is my deepest apology for ... Please forgive me for … 解释苦衷:The fact is that I had …/ Unfortunately I …/ I had a small accident …/ I have some urgent business to deal with My behavior yesterday was inexcusable, and I must tell you how … 请求原谅提出补救方法:I want you to know how badly feel about… and to assure you that it will not happen again. I realize that particular… is irreplaceable, but I hope you will use the enclosed check to purchase a similar one. I hope this situation can be mended to everyone's satisfaction. I can only hope you will forgive … on my part. 范例1 Directions: You have received a complaint letter from your customer for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. Write a letter to him to 1) express your apology 2) explain the reason 3) provide the solution and offer the compensation. Dear Mr. Bicman: I apologize for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. We have just implemented a new packaging system that still has a few bugs to be worked out, but we did fix your order and sent it out this morning. For your trouble, we have enclosed a $25 gift certificate which can be used at any of our stores. Once again I would like to apologize for the mix-up in your order and any inconveniences this may have caused you. Sincerely, Li Ming 范例2 2008年硕士研究生入学考试作文题(见真题分析) (8)感谢信 感谢信的目的是感激对方为自己的付出,感激之情要传达得真挚自然,不要刻意夸大.感谢信所涉及的内容多种多样,比如可以感谢对方替自己做了一件事情,在自己痛苦时安慰了自己,出席了自己的宴会等等.其内容包括:1)表达感激之情2)回顾事情的经过 3)肯定对方帮助的价值以及对自己的影响,表达自己回报的愿望. 常用套语有: 表达感激之情:Thanks so much for…;Abundant thanks to … for… I'm writing to express my heartfelt thanks for … On behalf of my whole family, I wish to extend our heartfelt thanks for all the trouble you had taken in …I must write to thank you for inviting me to… 肯定对方帮助的价值及影响:You will never know how much we appreciated your kind and practical help. Your …meant more than I can express in words. Nothing can be more precious for me than your… 表达回报的愿望:I hope I can return the favor someday … Do call on me if I can ever return the favor. 感谢信中比较特殊是求职者面试后给面试官写的信.此类感谢信的内容不只是感谢,而是一般感谢信和求职信的结合.其主要内容包括:(1)感谢对方给你面谈的机会,并注明你面试的时间和所求的职位;(2)说明你对该公司、该职位的兴趣,强调你的知识与技能符合公司的需要,表示自己能为公司的发展做出贡献.也可以补充说明或澄清在面谈中忽略或没有讲明的问题(3)重申你对该职位的兴趣,主动提供更多的材料,表示期待他们的消息. Directions: You have just attended an interview in Apfel Incorporated for the position of marketing analyst. Write a letter of appreciation to the interviewer Mr. David Wayne. Your letter should include the following points: express your appreciation for the interview 2) tell about your job-related skills and experience Dear Mr. Wayne, Thank you very much for taking the time from your busy schedule last Friday to interview me for the marketing analyst position at Apfel Incorporated. After our meeting, I am convinced that your company is an excellent place for my career. I am extremely excited about the position and believe that my skills are a good match for the company. As you may remember, I completed a project that is similar in nature to the work I would be doing at your company. I believe that I could make an immediate contribution to Apfel Incorporated. Please let me know if I can provide you with any additional information about my background or goals. My email address is LiMing@yahoo.com, and my phone number is 12345678. I look forward to hearing from you soon. YYours sincerely, Li Ming 三、其他应用文 (一)告示与通知Notice and Announcement 告示、通知之类的应用文,写法灵活多样,有正式和非正式等多种形式,其目的均为告诉公众某件事或某项活动.文字要求简洁易懂,表达直截了当.这部分又可分为两类,一类是有关部门就某事发出的通知或张贴的告示,此类文件要求结构严谨,用词确切,通常使用比较正式的文体.另一类是关于会议或活动的简单通知,此类文章至少需要包含以下内容:时间、地点、活动内容. 范例: Prince Alfred Park NOTICE Parking of vehicles, playing of golf, walking of dogs and the riding of bicycles is prohibited in this park. Unauthorized vehicles are prohibited in this park. Town Clerk ANNOUNCEMENT A TALK ON "ENGLISH TEACHING IN SHENZHEN" will be given by Comrade Wu Mingliang on Saturday, May 10 at 8:30 a. m. in Room C510 English Department Office ANNOUNCEMENT CONCERNED STUDENTS! We need volunteers to work with kids between the ages of 7 & 17 years. You would be able to gain valuable experiences while working in an activity of your choice (i.e. pool, gym, photography, dancing, weight lifting, etc.). For further information, please contact Barb Graham at the Memorial Boys'and Girls'Club (434-6054). (二)便笺(便条) Note 便笺是一种简短信函,形式比书信简单,多使用非正式文体.内容可包括:时间、收信人、事由、写信人.通常不写发信人地址,开头甚至可以略去Dear等称呼,结尾也可略去祝贺的话和Yours sincerely等语言.其使用语言特点是通常情况下比一般的信函更接近口语.由于写信人和收信人对互相的情况都十分熟悉,因此一般的客套话均省略. 范例: May 2 Jack, I'm afraid that Ihave to go at 12:00 today to meet an overseas visitor (from Beijing). Could you please ring me to make another time? Many thanks. Ted 5thNovember, 1991. Dear Mr. Lin, Iam writing to tell you how grateful Iam for all you did for me in Beijing. I hope that you will contact me if there is anything Ican do for you. In particular, Iwould be most glad to send you or the Department any books you need. Yours sincerely, (Signature) Professor T. R. Stevens (三)备忘录 Memo 备忘录的主要作用是为雇员传达信息,它一般局限于公司或部门内部的交流,本公司或部门之外的人一般看不到.其主要功能包括:1.提供会议摘要;2.为主管人员与职员之间的交流提供更便捷的渠道;3.确认电话交谈或会面的内容. 备忘录一般使用非正式文体,但也可以根据内容及收文人与发文人之间关系而具体决定,例如向上级报道重要事情就需要使用正式文体.如果备忘录内容不止一个,则可以采取分段的形式,也可采用数字编号. 备忘录的结构形式一般包括以下几个部分: (1)标题:Memo位于第一行正中. (2)信头(Headings):包括To,From,Subject和Date等措词.To后面接收件人姓名、职务等;From后面接备忘录写作者的姓名(注意作者姓名前面不用Dr.,Miss,Mr.,Ms之类的称呼);Subject后是备忘录主要内容的概括性小标题;Date后写日期. (3)正文段落:主题下面空两行写正文,不用称呼和结尾礼词. (4)打字员姓名首字母(Reference Initials):写在正文末行空一行的地方. (5)附件(Enclosure) 范例: Memo To: All Staff From: Robert White, Managing Director Date: Jan. 10 2004 Subject: Entertainments Or Gifts During Spring Festival At around this time of year many invitations are received from companies and clients to Spring Festival dinners. Gifts are also sometimes received. Iam sure that such offers only resultfrom a job being well done and it is certainly pleasing to know that the level of service provided by staff is appreciated. The acceptance of any offers, entertainment or gifts can, however, lead to either a real or perceived conflict of interest. To ensure that this does not arises, all such offers should be declined and gifts returned. Ishould appreciate your understanding and cooperation. R. W. 第六部分写作B部分命题的特点和规律 在研究生英语入学考试中,英语写作历来是考生的一个难点.英语写作主要考查考生运用英语的综合能力,其中包括用英语组织篇章段落的能力、英语的语句表达能力以及语法的综合运用能力.要做好写作部分的试题,要求考生不仅具有较扎实的语言基础,而且还要掌握一些写作的基本技能,如:信息的分析和综合能力以及丰富的想像力.英文写作是一个最能体现考生书面英语水平和技能的测试项目. 一、写作B部分命题的基本指导思想 考试大纲对写作的评价目标 根据《大纲》规定:考生应根据题目以及写作提纲或规定的情境、图表、图画等写出大约200个词的短文.具体要求概括如下: (1)内容切题,包含提纲或图画的全部要点和信息.所谓内容切题是指所写的短文切合题意,即正确理解题目的意思.误解题目或曲解题意,写出来的短文答非所问就是跑题.另外,也要注意不漏掉提纲或图画中的要点和信息,如果提纲中给出了三个要点,考生却只写了两个要点,显然从内容上就不切题了.因此,审题是短文写作成败的关键.考生一定要认真阅读写作要求,仔细琢磨题意,弄清题目以及写作提纲或规定情境、图表的内容范围,依此表达题目限定的中心思想,做到内容切题. (2)表达清楚,意思连贯.表达清楚是指清楚地表达思想,而不是含糊其辞,使人不得要领.在写作过程中,考生应思路清晰,运用恰当的语句表达意思.此外,还要根据题目要求,围绕中心提出论点,摆出论据,使短文层次分明,合乎逻辑.意思连贯是指句子与句子、段落与段落之间衔接自然,整体性强.考生应熟练运用连接词语来正确表达一个观点与另一观点之间的关系. (3)用词正确,句式有变化,语言比较规范.语言比较规范是指在遣词造句中应符合英语语法和习惯用法.首先在词语运用上能够选用恰当的、能够准确表达意义的词,并能显示出一定的词汇量(用词面较宽);其次,写出的句子符合语法规范,没有重大语法错误,句式上多变,不要只用简单句或陈述句,应适当增加句子形式的多样性,不仅有短句,也有长句,不仅有简单句,也有并列句、复合句等等. (4)文章的长度符合要求.长度是指短文的字数.符合要求的字数应是160至200个词左右. 现将大纲对写作部分的评分标准摘录如下: (1)20~17分.内容切题,包括题中所列三个方面的内容;清楚表达其内涵,文字连贯;句式有变化,句子结构和用词正确.文章长度符合要求. (2)16~13分.内容切题,包括题中所列三个方面的内容;比较清楚地表达其内涵,文字基本连贯;句式有一定变化,句子结构和用词无重大错误;文章长度符合要求. (3)12~9分.内容切题,基本包含题中所列三个方面的内容;基本清楚地表达其内涵,句子结构和用词无重大错误.文章长度符合要求. (4)8~5分.内容基本切题,基本包含题中所列三个方面的内容;语句可以理解,但有较多的句子结构和用词错误.文章长度基本符合要求. (5)4~1分.基本按照要求写作,但只有少数句子可以理解. (6)0分.文不切题,语句混乱,无法理解. 二、写作B部分材料的选择 (一)选择材料的特点 纵观历年试卷,写作的题目多集中在社会伦理、人生哲理、学校教育、人际关系交往、娱乐方式、健康和生活方式等方面.最近几年的命题多与当前的社会现实和热点问题有关,要求考生对社会现象和社会的经济、文化生活有所关注和思考,并形成自己的见解. 从命题内容来看,其材料特点有: 1. 普遍性:发生在身边的事情,各种考生都有一定的体验,可以有感而发.比如2003年的温室里的花和2002年的中国与国际的交流.不管你身处何处,这些现象和变化都是中国人共同体验的.考题不会考查一部分考生熟悉,而另一部分考生不了解的内容.对于社会生活中的敏感问题,一般不会涉及. 2. 教育性:论题有警示作用的,可让考生作深层思考.比如,有关人生哲理的2008年 "合作的重要性",2007年的"乐观心态是成功的关键",2004年的"终点又是新的起点". 3. 社会性:社会关心的、典型的事.如2009年的题目是网络的"近"与"远",2006年的题目是偶像崇拜,2005年则对赡养老人问题展开讨论,2003年的试题既可以讨论加入世界贸易组织后的中国经济发展的现实问题,也可以谈孩子的教育问题,2002年的题目是中外文化交流问题.因此考生平时应关注社会性的问题,加深思考深度,并且阅读英文报纸,积累相关词汇.在近10年的考题中三分之一是正面现象的分析论证,如2004年的终点又是起点,2002年的"国际化交流",2001年的"希望工程或爱心工程".而其余的考题关注的是社会中存在的一些问题,也就是说三分之二的题目是有关负面问题的分析解决. (二)作文的体裁 从体裁上看,近10年的作文都为论说文.论说文的特点是说议结合,一部分为对论题的说明,一部分为议论,或者夹叙夹议.这种写作的难点在于将说明或描写与议论有机地结合起来,形成一个衔接自然的文章. 下表为近十年考题特点的小结. 时间 中心思想 题材 类型 2009年 网络的"近"与"远" 社会生活 图画式作文 2008年 合作的重要性 人生哲理 图画式作文 2007年 乐观心态是成功的关键 人生哲理 图画式作文 2006年 偶像崇拜 社会生活 图画式作文 2005年 年轻人应该赡养父母 社会伦理 图画式作文 2004年 终点又是新的起点 人生哲理 图画式作文 2003年 温室里的花经不起风雨 教育或经济问题 图画式作文 2002年 中国与世界的文化交流 文化与交流 图画式作文 2001年 困难的时候,人人都应该献爱心 社会伦理 图画式作文 2000年 自然生态平衡遭破坏 环境保护 图画式作文 三、写作B部分题型透 (一)图画式作文 从2000到2009年这十年间B部分写作考的都是图画式作文.从命题者的角度来说,这是为了更好地考查考生的写作能力,如:理解、推断和书面组织.由于它只允许考生在规定的范围内进行描述、分析,这就避免考试时套用考试前背好的范文的现象的发生.图画常以漫画或照片的形式出现,有的图画还有题目和提示性文字,这是为了帮助考生理解图画的内容.从应试的角度看,审题、谋篇、语言是写好作文的三要素.命题,图画及题中的文字说明是用于审题的;而"写作要求"往往是针对布局谋篇的,同时写作要求也影响语言的分配. 1. 图画式作文的审题 第一,仔细研读作文指令,从题目中找出中心词,分析修饰词,从而准确地抓住题目的中心.考生首先要搞清楚作文的要求,如:是否有标题?标题是什么?是否有提纲?文章字数是多少等.然后,从作文的题目中理解命题者命题的主要意图.如2002年考题,题目为"Culture—National and International".首先,中心词为"文化",观察图片发现是一个身着中国民族服装的西方女孩的照片.从女孩那灿烂的笑容上我们不难看出她的心里是多么的欣喜,而这种欣喜来自于对中国文化的感受.而后再看修饰词"本国的,国际的",这进一步缩小写作范围为文化的交流,而这种交流反映了两方面的情况:一方面是中国文化对世界文化的渗透;另一方面是世界对中国文化的了解与接受. 第二,考生要注意题目中的文字说明,看文字说明要做到看清主、谓、宾.比如,2001年考题是"爱心是一盏灯,在越黑暗的地方越明亮".很多考生写到了爱心的比较上,哪里要多给一些爱心,哪里要少给一些爱心,这就是偏题.之所以偏题的原因就是没有抓住句子主语.这一句的主语是什么?自然是"爱心".再看其谓语、宾语,可以看出本题是提倡在需要的地方献爱心. 第三,要认真解读图画,因为图画是作文的信息基础.如果说题目与文字提供了中心的骨,那么图画就提供了中心的肉.图画作文的中心思想通常体现在图中人物的动作、表情或画龙点睛的一句或几句话中.考生可以在抓住题目与说明文字的基础上,对图画进行抽象,点出图画的寓意.如2009年考题,我们看到了网络既拉近了人们的距离也在人们之间竖起了隔膜.2006年考题,我们看到了对明星盲目的崇拜.2002年考题,我们可以看到欣喜——了解中国文化的欣喜. 2. 图画式作文的谋篇 作文的题干中会提出两到三项写作要求,考生在谋篇时要抓住这些要求.虽然图画式作文的写作要求看似变化莫测,但实际上只涉及5个方面:描述图画、指明寓意、分析原因、联系实际、给出建议.不仅历年的考查内容有限,考查内容的个数也很相似,一般来说是考查3个考点.即使只有两条要求,实际上它常包含一个隐性条件,所以考生也要涉及3点才能把文章写透彻.比如2009年的考题要求:1) describe the drawing briefly 2)explain its intended meaning 3) give your comments.由于这些写作要求类似于提纲,图画式作文也可以当做三段式的提纲作文.第一段用来描述图画并揭示出其寓意(寓意用一句话来概括即可),第二段分析原因,最后一段发表评论或提出建议.篇幅的比例分配,第二、三段应是文章的重点,应占2/3. 3. 图画式作文的语言组织 作文的语言应长短句兼顾,句式变化多样,当然语法的正确性是必需的.如果实在掌握或控制不好语言,可以采用长短句按1∶3的比例或反之.句子写完后,也可自问一下是否用了分词结构,不定式,感叹句等多种句式.如没有,可适当调整句式.在组织语言中要特别注意连贯性,连贯性不仅从连词、语句的使用中体现出来,更重要的是语意的相互照应.考生要注意自己的作文中心是否与主题句紧密连接,例子是否直接支持主题,号召是否呼应了主题和例子,等等. 4. 图画式作文的描写 描写是再现客观事物,其目的是使人感受到具体的情况.考研作文中的描写应注意的问题:第一,围绕主题,描写最突出的特征和能够支持主旨的细节;第二,描写要按照一定的逻辑顺序进行(如时间、空间等);第三,描写力求生动、形象、准确.如: Waller,Texas,is a small town for all other forms of civilization. There is no movie theater,no bowling alley,and certainly no mall. This place doesnt even have a WalMart. Residents of Waller have all heard the saying: "There are only two things for kids to do in Waller,and one of them is drinking." This may seem humorous at first,but,unfortunately,there is some truth to it. 描述是为一定中心服务的.本段通过描述Waller精神生活的缺乏引出文章中心:娱乐活动缺乏带来酗酒等社会问题. (二)图表式作文 图表作文是通过提供的一组或几组数据来反映某个趋势或某一问题、现象.要求考生对图表中的相关数据进行描述、分析和评论,并得出合乎逻辑的结论.它是将数据、形象信息转换为文字信息的过程. 图表作文要求的不是对图表的简单叙述,而是抓住图表所反映的主要问题.因为图表式作文所要讨论的现象和问题都隐含在数据里,所以考生常会感到比较难写.因此要想抓住主旨,就要分析图表中那些最有代表性、规律性的数字,或变化大的数字.它的写作误区是报流水账,对数据面面俱到,却不能指出图表所反映的中心,也不能利用数据进行有力的论证. 常见的图表类型有:①表格,它表示多种事物的相互关系;②曲线,它常表示事物的变化趋势;③柱状,它用来表示几种事物的变化情况及相互关系;④饼状,表示各事物在总体中所占的比例及相互关系. 表格和曲线作文的审题与其他类型的作文相比难度较大,主要表现在考生不易准确、全面地把握图表显示的信息.这类作文提供了大量数据,但题目往往要求少用所给数据,避免简单罗列数据.一般用一般现在时,如果图表提供了时间参数,则应采用相应的时态. 图表作文的写作步骤:①分析图表及说明性文字;②分析数字所反映的主旨,得出中心论点;③列提纲;④写作. 关于图表式作文的描述方法: 第一种情况:横向对比.描述这种图表需要对比各数据间的差别,主要以数值、倍数、排列等方式来描述. 常用句型: ①A department has the lowest sales figure in the three departments,followed by the B department and C department. ②The figure of A is about twice as much as that of B. ③The income from sales is 10 million,making the company the highest one in sales. ④The A's income reaches 20 million,which is in the middle of the list. 第二种情况:纵向说明.只要指出不同单位之间的比较,描述如何增减,增减幅度如何,反映出什么问题,就可以了.描述这样的图表时,可用以下词汇和句型: ①The rise lasted for two weeks and then began to level off in June. ②The trend/increase slowed down in May. ③The trend of increasing working hours began to gain momentum in January. (开始走强) ④Prices went up by 50%, but the number of smokers maintained. ⑤It picked up speed at the end of this year. 常用词汇及表达法:increase,decrease,rise,fall,slow down,level off,pick up speed,maintain,drop,the trend reverses,decline,gain/lose momentum, a steady/ substantial(实质性的)increase,a minor/slight/dramatic drop. 第三种情况:纵向、横向均有的说明.这种图表不仅要注意同一事物的变化趋势,也要注意不同事物之间的差距及变化. 表示百分比常用句型: ①It accounts for 30% of the total population. ②There are 4 members with master's degrees,making up nearly a quarter of the workforce. ③Doctors make up 40% of the staff in the hospital. 表示增长率的常用句型: ①The figure of income increased by about 200% as compared with ten years ago. ②The number of students has reached 200,indicating a rise of 4%,compared to last year. Example: The two bar charts indicate the annual emissions of CO2 per capita and populations of seven countries. Industrialized countries certainly contribute more to the CO2 levels in the atmosphere,with the US at the top —3.93 tons per capita per year. It is followed by Japan and the UK,with emissions of 3.32 tons and 2.15 tons respectively. Though these countries usually don't have large populations,they consume disproportionately large quantities of natural resources and therefore are more blamed for global warming. Developing countries,on the other hand,usually have lower levels of emissions. China,for example,has the largest population in the list. Yet its emission of CO2 per capita is only 980 kg,being about a quarter of the emission level of the US. Another good example is Korea. Its population is the smallest in the list,so is its per capita emission of CO2 The charts show no correlation between emission levels of CO2 and the sizes of population. 本文比较了7个国家二氧化碳排放的变化幅度,及相互对比关系. 其它图表式作文的常用句型: ①The curves show__in a certain year. ②It can be seen that__(sth)fluctuates quite substantially in this year. ③It just increases slightly. ④The pie charts show the changes__in some place in 1999 ⑤It can be seen from the chart that the proportions of A and B are going down, though the falling level of the latter is a lot higher/lower than that of the former. ⑥The expansion is more noticeable during the second half of the 8--year period. ⑦It falls from 30% of the staff in 1990 to 20% in 1998 and then the trend reverses, finishing at 34% in 2000. ⑧And A is higher than B except for the months June to September.__drops dramatically from about__in January to__in June. ⑨The falling trend levels off from__to__,__(sth) goes all the way up to__and then it begins to drop to. (三)提纲式命题作文 提纲式作文既有论说文,也有议论文.它主要考查的内容为:说明主题,分析原因或解释做法.例如:1995年的试题"希望工程"中提纲的要求是:(1) Present situation. (2) Necessity of the project. (3)My suggestion.它要求考生解释说明"希望工程",分析开展希望工程的意义和原因,联系考生自己提出一些建议或具体的做法.从提纲的要求上看,提纲式命题作文对联系社会的要求不是很多,写作难度也相对较小.它要求考生在正确理解题意的基础上,根据提纲去选择素材.提纲提供了每段的段落大意,在开展论述时不能偏离提纲或改变内容.提纲一般为三部分,考生应针对提纲采用三段的结构来开展文章.如: Nowadays,China's economy is fast developing. People's living standard has improved a lot. In some areas,however,there are still many people living below the poverty line. They have difficulties for the very basics like food and clothes,let alone getting good education. What can we do to help these less developed areas in our country? I think we can do the following things. First of all,the government and our society must pay more attention to these less developed areas. The government should spend more money on the basic construction projects in these areas instead of spending it on cultural and artistic projects in cities. It should also encourage some private enterprises and companies to donate to these poor areas. Secondly,transportation is very important in less developed areas. We should help them build more railways and more roads so that the local people can benefit from the convenient transportation. It can also promote their communication with developed areas. Finally,technology is necessary in developing economy in these areas. Poor farmers should be taught technology and new skills and should have easier access to money in the bank,such as getting loans to start businesses. All in all,so long as we continue our efforts to help these less developed areas,these areas will shake off poverty sooner or later. 再如: Directions: Write an article to an English newspaper discussing laid-off workers and re-employment in China. In your article you should (1) describe briefly the present situation of unemployment, (2) analyze the causes of it, (3) give advice for re-employment. You should write about 200 words neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. 范文: There is an increasing number of workers,not only the middle-aged but also the young who are laid off from their jobs. Some laid-offs thus become poverty-stricken and can hardly support their children to continue their studies. And those employed are also worried a great deal that someday they may lose their jobs. This phenomenon has caught great attention in society. In order to maintain social stability,many re-employment service centers are being set up to give the laid-offs a helping hand. The increasing number of laid-off workers is caused mainly by the industrial restructuring and economic development across the country. In market economy,the enterprises have to reduce workforce or the redundant. Another reason is that some enterprises claim bankruptcy owing to their poor management and backward product structure,which made millions of workers jobless. Laborers from the countryside are also contributing to the increasing numbers of the laid-offs. Off-job doesn't mean no job. There are plenty of opportunities for the laid-off workers to be re-employed. Take Shanghai for example,the city is developing into an international economic center,shifting its old labor intensive industries out of the city and replacing them with new enterprises. But there is a fundamental requirement for the laid-offs if they want to be enrolled in these new posts. They must have certain skills. To many laid-off workers,they have to get job training to make themselves qualified and competitive in the human resources market. 四、写作B部分的主要写作方法 (一)主题句的写法 1.主题句的特点 主题句是全段的核心.它由中心词和限定词两部分组成.中心词说明讨论的主题(topic)是什么,限定词是把主题具体化,它限定讨论的内容,范围和展开方式等.例如: The first key factor to success is diligence, (what) which simply means no waste of time. 主题 限定词 限定词 I think you will make the decision according to the following factors.(how) 主题 限定词 考生可通过回答How?Why? Where? What?等问题来把主题具体化,选定限定词.主题句的展开通常会出现如下问题: (1)过于空洞.只给出主题,未指出写作内容和展开方式.如: The relationship is not good.此句可以通过回答what kind of relationships,to what extent等问题将之具体化.可改为:The relationship between family members is not as close as before.这样主题句限定了关系的范围,文章后面的开展方式——侧重于现在关系的不好,又可以用对比的方式展开.再如: Clothes play a part in our life.此句没有限定写作的大体内容或方式,(是衣服的时尚性,还是实用性),读者不能预测下文的展开方向.通过回答"how"这样的问题,我们可将主题句具体化.改为:Clothes play a critical part in the conclusions we reach by providing clues to who people are.修改后的句子点出了文章的写作内容——根据服装,可以判断人. (2)过于具体.太具体的主题句使段落后面没有展开的余地.如: He thought highly of her and helped her to find jobs of teaching at several institutions. 这种叙述性的句子,对事实的陈述过于详尽,不适合做主题句. 2.主题句的位置 (1)位于段首,也就是开门见山.把主旨放在段首,使读者对文章内容、结构等有个把握.在应试中,这是十分行之有效的方法.如: From the health point of view we are living in a marvelous age. We are immunized from birth against many of the dangerous diseases. A large number of once fatal illnesses can now be cured by modern drugs and surgery. It is almost certain that one day remedies will be found for the most stubborn remaining diseases. The expectation of life has increased enormously. 段首主题句清晰地点出本段的中心思想,后面从对疾病的免疫、治疗,及对疾病的攻克三个方面说明健康医疗状况良好.读者只看段首就可抓住段落主旨. (2)位于段中.主题句出现在中间,起到承上启下的作用,上文引出背景,下文可以用于分析.如: Before China's entry into the WTO,the common people were optimistic about what access would mean,believing that if joining were not beneficial,the government would not have spent 15 years negotiating for its entry. They were perhaps thinking that when the day came,the price of phone calls would be lower,and also house rents and that insurance services would be better. But they neglect the prospect of unemployment and other domestic crisis.Since China joined the WTO,some people,owing to advanced age and limited experience,may find it difficult to keep their work. 文章开始铺垫了一个对待入世的积极的期待,而中间的主题句将文风一转,引出主旨:入世带来的消极方面.然后文章从失业开始进一步展开论证. (3)位于段末.主题句位于段末,既可以点题,也可以总结上文,给读者留下深刻的印象.如: Ms. Yang,aged 50,works as a cleaner in an office building,and her annual income is about 20 000 yuan.She has signed up for an English language training course,the cost of which is much more than her annual income. Why English? English-based success stories have indicated to the Chinese that English means opportunities,wealth,and prospects. 本文先举了杨女士花钱学英语的例子,然后引出问题:为什么要花如此高价学习英语.段末给出结论,点出学习英语的重要性.结尾点题,给人以深刻的印象. (二)段落的拓展 1.段落的作用 首先,好的段落要求每段只能有一个主题,围绕一个中心思想展开.与中心不同的观点或无关的内容都应删去.其次,结构连贯:适当地运用过渡词指明文章内部的逻辑关系. Example 1 Reforming and opening up have helped the villagers to live a comfortable life. (主题句) Before 1983 the village practiced a collective ownership system,whereby the villagers picked and baked tea leaves together.Life was hard and their income meager,so they had no incentive to work hard."We got rich after the fields were parceled out to households in 1983," says Sun Jinrong.Since then,the villagers have tilled their own plots.Having learned to follow the laws of the market economy and competition,their living standards have greatly improved. 段首提出中心论点:改革开放使茶农过上了好日子.后按时间顺序,先描写1983年以前吃大锅饭的情形,又说改革开放后生活水平的提高.前后形成对比,充分说明论点. Example 2 I hold the view that children can play computer games in their spare time,and the reasons are explored as follows. First, computer games should be played moderately,with the control of parents. It can help children to relax and improve their efficiency in their studies. Second,playing computer games moderately can offer children chances to develop their creativity,which is essential for their success in study. Third, playing computer games can broaden children's knowledge. It is well-known that a machine will break down if it keeps running without a stop. Similarly, if a child keeps studying without relaxation,he will be tired out. And if a child spends all this time studying,he will become a dull boy in the ivory tower. 本段开头点出中心,然后用过渡词指出三个原因.最后加以总结.文章结构一目了然. 2.关于段落的写作方法 (1)定义法 当考生提出的概念或观点很抽象,涉及面广时,考生需要对概念进行解释,限定内容,从而缩小讨论的焦点.如: Ambition is like choler (胆汁),which is a humour,that makes men active,earnest,full of alacrity,and stirring,if it be not stopped. But if it be stopped,and cannot have its way,it becomes angry,and malign. So ambitious men,if they find the way open for their rising,and still get forward,they're rather busy than dangerous; but if they be checked in their desires,they become secretly discontent,and look upon men and matters,with an evil eye. 本文是对抱负/雄心的分析.而这个题目本身范围太广,因此作者先给它下了个定义,确定讨论的方向:抱负/雄心在不同条件下表现出来的不同特性.这样就缩小了讨论范围,确定了讨论的方向. 当然作者也可通过从句来对事物进行定义和解释,如: Hemophilia is called the bleeder's disease because the afflicted person's blood is unable to clot. (2)时间、空间顺序法 以事情发展的顺序,或时间的先后安排材料.在描写、分析社会变化的文章中常用顺序进行写作,同时也可以起到新旧对比论证的作用.如: Before a stop sign was put up, there were one hundred and twenty accidents there in a year. After a stop sign was put up,there were only forty accidents in a year. Having the stop sign there decreased the number of accidents immediately. 文章用时间上的对比来论证了竖标牌的作用.通过时间顺序安排材料,结构清晰,论证了标牌的作用. 当图画比较复杂,而且方位较强时,考生可按照空间顺序进行描述.这样,考生既可以对描写思路有所了解,又可使文章结构清晰.如: The kitchen was in a mess. Along the left wall were the counter and sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage. On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy clothes. Right next to the door where I was standing,on my right,I saw a table cluttered with old newspapers,an overturned catsup bottle. At the far end of the right wall the refrigerator stood with door ajar. It was the messiest kitchen I had ever seen. (3)因果分析法 这种方法是一种分析法,在阐释观点中常用.按因果关系的不同,可以分为一因一果、一因多果、一果多因.单一的因果关系往往用来分析简单的问题.而对于文章主要论点的分析,应采用一因多果、一果多因的方法,这样可以全方位多个角度透彻地分析问题.如: The Beijing subway is to adopt international signs.(主题句)The Chinese characters originally used for east,west,south and north are to be replaced by the letters A,B,C and D. The subway operator explained that the four Chinese characters indicating directions no longer meet the needs of passengers,given the diversity of subway stations and increases in the number of entrances and exits.(因)Therefore,universal signs used worldwide will be adopted.(果) 文章分析了北京地铁采用国际化标志的原因,为一因一果的形式.再如: The main reason why professors should give frequent exams (果) is that when they do and when they provide feedback to students on how well they're doing,students learn more in the course and perform better on major exams (原因1).Moreover,If students had frequent exams in all their courses,they would have to schedule study time each week and gradually would develop a habit of frequent study (原因2). 作者采用一果多因的方法分析了教授应经常测试学生的原因. (4)例证法 考生可以用他人的例子,自己的经历或名人的故事作为实例,来把论点具体化.从考生的作文中,我们可以看出,贴切、具有社会深度的例子可以有效地深化主题.为了能在考试中很好地举例,平时应对有社会意义的例子多加积累、分类.如: It is very difficult to evaluate another person's performance objectively. For example,Jane recently wrote irresponsible remarks about her instructor because she was failing the course. Her friend Sam wrote a great description of the same instructor because he was receiving an A in the course. Both Jane and Sam were not fairly evaluating the instructor. They were influenced by the grades they were earning and were biased in their judgement. 本段通过两个例子的对比,论证了很难客观地评价一个人. (5)分类法 分类法是根据不同的类别来讨论,这可以使很复杂的内容变得层次清晰,论述更全面.如: "The wolf has come!" No one knows who gave the first warning,but it made a large impact on two main groups: the common people and entrepreneurs. The common people hoped that it would mean more inexpensive commodities,while entrepreneurs worried about encirclement by transnational companies. 本段通过两种不同类型的人对同一问题的不同看法,表明不同的中国人对入世的不同期待和看法. (6)对比和对照法 对比法比较的是事物的相同点;对照法比较的是事物的不同点.通过对比或对照熟悉和不熟悉的事物,考生可以了解不熟悉的事物;通过对比或对照相同点或不同点,考生可以更准确地评价事物. 要点式:先讲解两个事物在一点上的相同或不同点,再去讲解他们在另一点上的异同之处 主题式:先讲解一个事物的各个方面,再讲解另一个事物 第一段 A1 B1 第二段 A2 B2 第一段 A1 A2 第二段 B1 B2 如: As a creature,I eat; as a man,I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of my mind,they are in a way quite similar. To keep ourselves alive,we need all kinds of nutrition. 1) Eating is the most important way by which we can get starch,protein,vitamin,sugar,fat,and some trace elements. 2) On the other hand,we eat not only because we have to do so,but also because we enjoy doing so. Having satisfied our hunger,eating can then be a kind of enjoyment. The color,the smell,and the taste of the food are considered as important as its nutritive value. Very often we eat some food not because it is nourishing but simply because welike it. Similarly,to enrich our minds,we need information and knowledge,which can be obtained through reading.1) Reading is one of the most important ways of learning. Without reading our minds will become empty like that of an animal. 2) Sometimes,we take reading as a pastime,and we relax and learn at the same time. Since recreation is involved,we will naturally have a partiality for some particular kinds of books,just as we do for certain kind of food. Besides,there are other similarities between eating and reading. 1)We should not eat too much without digesting and assimilating,nor should we read too much without understanding and remembering. 2) While we are eating, we should leave out the rotten part of the food which will do harm to our health; and while we are reading,we should be able to reject the poisonous content in a book,for it will poison our minds. So,eat sensibly and read sensibly to give yourself a strong body and a healthy mind. 本文比较了吃饭与读书的异同.第二、三段采用的是主题法比较它们的相同之处,第四段是通过要点式来进行比较的. (三)文章开头与结尾的写作方法 1.文章开头的写法 (1)引言法 在文章开头引用具有代表性的名人名言,既可吸引读者,又可以点题.如: "Be the first to be concerned with the world's troubles and the last to enjoy worldly happiness."Fan Zhongyan,a scholar of the Song Dynasty,expresses eloquently the lofty spirit of Chinese intellectuals in his maxim. On realizing that the cause of China's lack of development was its backwardness in science and technology,many modern scholars accordingly went to Western countries to study. 本段以"先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐"引出主旨,给人以深刻的印象. (2)提问法 如: Why are foreigners so glad that barriers have been dismantled? China has a population of 1.2 billion,and US $1 000 billion of GDP. It is a country with one of the fastest economic growth rates in the world. China's entry into the WTO will therefore enable all economic entities in the world to expand trade and investment,bringing benefits to enterprises,consumers and workers in these countries. (3)数据引用 引用恰当的数据,使文章开头简洁、有力.对于表格式作文,常从描述、分析表格入手.如: It is reported that from 1995 to 1998,the number of cars in Shanghai rose at the rate of 20%,but the average speed of cars dropped at the rate of 30%. It should be noticed that 43% of added cars during the period of 1995~1998 is private cars. Therefore some people point out that the most effective way to solve the traffic problem is to ban private cars. But I think they have gone extremely far away. 本段通过引用数据对私车增多及车速下降这一现象进行了详细的描述.通过分析,作者自然地引出观点:完全禁止私车是偏激的做法. (4)概要法 开门见山,首先提出文章的主要观点,然后通过举例或逻辑推理等方法加以详述.如: This report is divided into three main sections: what equipment you need,how to use equipment,and how to maintain equipment. 2.文章结尾的写法 (1)总结法 总结式结尾的作用在于回顾全文、突出中心,使读者对文章形成一个整体的把握.要想写好总结式结尾,就要求文章内容本身重点突出、中心明确,这样回顾起来才有点可抓.在写总结式结尾时,对于论证中提到的要点应该点到为止,而重在重申论点.如: On the whole,life in China has become better after 30 years,Ordinary people now enjoy a more colorful life than before. Though some problems have arisen in the progress,we still can't deny this positive trend. (2)建议法 针对文章前面的分析,提出相对应的号召或解决方案,表示对将来的期待或鼓动大家采取相应的行动.如: It is essential that effective measures should be taken to redress such inequality. It is high time that we should urge an immediate end to this phenomenon. (3)反问法 在末尾加上反问,可使文章引人思考.如: Psychological health of the youth should be concerned by our society. On being advised by his school that he should leave after failing several exams,a Beijing university student decided to commit suicide,but first killed his father and grandmother so as to spare their grief at his own death. A 13-year-old Sichuan Province girl ran away from home recently in pursuit of her favorite movie star,and has not been seen since. Isn't there anything wrong with psychological health of the youth? 用反问句加深主题:年轻人的心理健康有些问题,应该得到更多关注. (4)引语法 用引语归结全文,有画龙点睛的作用,使文章既生动,又有说服力.如: All of us wish for a bright future and hope to master a useful career. Those who persist in remaining idle will never fulfill their ambitions, "No pains,no gains" is a motto with much meaning. Meditate and live by it. 以"不劳不得"做总结,很好地归纳了上文,给人以警示. (5)首尾呼应法 在首尾两处点题,可以使段落的中心突出.如: China's reforms have brought China a lot of benefits and have changed Chinese people's life a great deal. A lively atmosphere has prevailed in all walks of fields throughout the country. The national economy has been thriving and national defense has ever been consolidated. In science and technology,quite a lot of achievements have been made. Certainly,the progress made in all fields has led to the raise of living standard for Chinese people. 首尾均强调了一系列有利于社会进步的改革给中国人的生活带来的改变,重点突出. (四)短文写作中常用的关联词 1.表示列举和举例 first of all,for one thing,for another,to begin with,first,second,next,in the first (second) place,furthermore,moreover,beyond that,also,besides,in addition,what is more,such as,finally; for example,for instance等. 2.表示原因 since,because (of),as,for,owing to,result from,due to,on account of,on the ground of,as a result of等. 3.表示时间顺序 at the same time,as soon as,so far,since,then,until,when,meanwhile,shortly,later,lately,after a while,at that time,before,earlier,presently,in the meantime,formerly等. 4.表示空间顺序 close to,close at hand(近在身旁),next to,down,far,beyond,against(对着),on the opposite side(相对的),opposite to,above,across,across from,around,at the bottom,before,behind,below,beneath,between,in the middle of,in the distance,in the center of,farther,on the left/right等. 5.表示重复 in other words,again,as has been pointed out,to repeat,as I have said above,once again,after all,indeed,in fact,truly,of course,chiefly,especially,certainly,actually,particularly,to be sure,above all,surely,most important of all,even worse,no doubt,needless to say等. 6.表示结果 so,then,therefore,thus,hence,consequently,as a result,accordingly,for this reason,as a consequence,on that account,it follows that等. 7.表示总结 to sum up,in summary,to summarize,in short,in brief,to be brief,in other words,on the whole,in conclusion,to conclude等. 8.表示对比和对照 (1)对照:but,however,yet,or,nevertheless,still,nonetheless,conversely,nor,rather,whereas,thought,on the one hand,on the other hand,on the contrary,by contrast with/to,in contrast (with/to),even though,instead,unlike,different from,instead (of),the opposite (of),unlike,although,while,but等. (2)对比:similarly,likewise,like,as,at the same time,in fact,too,in the same way,in a like manner,both,each,also,compared with等. (五)短文写作中的经典语义过渡的模式以及必备句型 考研英语写作的题材多数同我们日常生活相关,通常涉及事物间的比较,要求说明其相似性、相异性和事物之间的因果关系;有时要求考生分析事实,找出原因或解决问题的方法,或对一个问题提出个人看法等.所以考生在复习写作时,要尽可能熟悉和掌握表达这些关系的常用句型,这将对提高写作能力有较大帮助. 1.表示相似性的句型 ①Moral corruption(A)is to the State(B)as physical disease(C)is to an individual body(D).(A之于B犹如C之于D) ②Just as woods are indispensable to birds,so is the earth to human beings.(正如…,…也如此) ③As far as personality is concerned,Tom (A) and Peter (B) have almost everything in common.(A和B有共同之处) ④My hobby (A) is similar to his (B) in that we both like collecting records,foreign and domestic. (A与B相似) ⑤As the economies of all countries are closely interrelated no country can develop in self-seclusion. The same is true of China. (The same is true of. The same can be said of... 也是如此) 2.表示相异性的句型 ①Beijing (A) is populous and crowded,while Canberra (B) is just the opposite.(A与B正相反) ②China's condition (A) differs from ours (B) in that China has the largest population in the world. (A不同于B在于) ③While it may be true that basketball and volleyball share certain features,the excitement each arouses in the spectators is not the same.(…是不相同的) 3.表示权衡性的句型 ①It seems safe to say that the advantages of marriage outweigh the disadvantages of divorce.(利大于弊) ②Perhaps nothing can rival the pleasure from reading. (…是无与伦比的) ③There could be no doubt that job-hopping has its drawbacks as well as merits.(既有优点也有缺点) ④Men (A)may be superior to women(B) in physical affairs. Yet,there is no difference in intelligence.(A优于B) ⑤People's attitude towards drugs varies from person to person.(…是因人而异的) 4.表示过渡性的句型(承上启下,使新观点不至于显得突兀、武断) ①Some people argue as if it is a general truth that . But to be frank,I cannot agree with them for the following reasons. ②According to/As can be seen in figures/statistics /the findings/data released/provided by the government/an institute, . ③There are several/many causes/reasons for this dramatic/significant growth/change/decline/increase in . ④There are no less than three advantages in as rendered below. ⑤The reasons are chiefly as follows . ⑥Another reason why I advocate the attitude of is that. ⑦Last but not least, . ⑧What is more, . 5.表示倍数与比例关系的句型 近年来图表作文经常出现,考生需要熟悉和掌握一些常用的句型来解释图表、分析和表达数据间的倍数和比例关系: ①Asia ranks first both in area and in population among the seven Continents.Europe is second to Asia in population,but in area it is the last but one. ②We all hope that a country's population should be in proportion to its area, unfortunately the reality often goes against our will. ③A is a far larger university,being over three times as big as B. 6.引用图表内容时的过渡句型 图表式作文经常使用as从句做解释性描述的过渡,它的运用,可以使短文由图画的说明解释,陡然一转,由客观说到主观,由一般说到个体,过渡自然. ①This picture shows . At the beginning, ,as we can see in the upper half of the picture. However,the lower half of the picture shows that . ②As is revealed in the graph . ③As the survey results show . ④As we could find out later in this unit,his plan was not quite as he had expected. ⑤This table provides several important points of comparison between the two universities.As can be indicated in the table,the housing space for the staff of A in 1995 was 34 500 square meters,which nearly doubled the B's corresponding figure. 7.描述图表常用的概括性句型 这种句子通常用于开篇和结尾. ①This table provides,several important points of comparison between the two key universities. ②The two graphs depict the same thing seen in two different ways. The first diagram simply records . The second graph throws a new light on . ③The key findings taken from the surveys are as follows: . ④If drivers continue to drive more carefully and further strengthen their sense of safety,the rate of accidents can be expected to decline even more dramatically in the year 1998. 8.引论或得出结论的句型 ①As the proverb goes,It is quite understandable that . ②Along with the development of society more and more problems are brought to our attention,one of which is that . ③Admittedly,there are merits to both sides of the argument. ④Contrary to widely held belief,I believe that . ⑤Now,it is commonly believed /some people think that ,but I wonder whether . 9.表示转折的句型 ①On the surface of it,this may seem to be a good solution,but if thinking again,we would point out some drawbacks. ②At first thought,it may seem to be an attractive idea,but it does not bear closer analysis when we find . ③Superficially,it seems to be a sound solution,but when carefully weighing in the mind,we find that . ④A close inspection of these arguments would reveal how flimsy they are. ⑤The undeniable deficiency in this remark is that it is negligent of the bare fact that . ⑥However,we also cannot deny that . 10.表示解释、分析、引申的句型 ①One very strong argument for is that . ②It is an obvious fact that . ③One of the most important things about is that . ④A particularly notable case of this matter is . ⑤We may look into every possible reason,however,foremost reason for is . ⑥is mainly/ partly/ also responsible for the rise/increase/ decrease in . ⑦We may cite/quote/mention a single/common example of . ⑧A recent/nationwide study/survey/poll conducted/ taken at a university/ by scientists indicates/reveals/ suggests that . ⑨Of course,this will have some negative effects on . ⑩ is a case in point. 11.表示得出结论的句型 ①From what has been discussed above,we may safely draw the conclusion that . ②Taking into account all these factors,we may safely reach the conclusion that . ③Judging from all evidence offered,we may safely come to the conclusion that . ④All the evidence/analysis supports a (an) sound/ unshakable/just conclusion/ view that . 12.表示建议、采取行动的句型 ①It is necessary/ essential that effective actions/ quick steps/ proper measures should be taken to prevent the situation/ correct tendency / end phenomenon. ②There is little doubt that serious/ considerable/ special attention must be called /paid /devoted to the problem /shortage of . ③It is high time that we placed/put great/special/considerable emphasis on theimprovement/ development /increase of .